European Journal of Special Education Research
ISSN: 2501 - 2428
ISSN-L: 2501 - 2428
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2017
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.377029
THE EFFECT OF 8-WEEK BALL-HANDLING TRAINING PROGRAM
ON UPPER-LOWER EXTREMITY MUSCULAR STRENGTH OF
INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME
Gonca Incei
Coaching Education Department Sport-Health Science, Cukurova University,
Physical Education and Sport College, Adana, Turkey
Abstract:
Purpose: In this study, it has been aimed to determine the effect of 8-week ball-handling
training program on upper-lower extremity muscular strength of individuals with
Down syndrome.
Method: In the study, twenty one individuals who had been medically diagnosed with
trisomy down syndrome and still attending special education and rehabilitation centres
have participated as voluntarily. The participants have been selected randomly and
divided into exercise (10 participants) and control groups (11 participants). The exercise
group was trained with Ball-handling Training Program for 8 weeks; 2 days a week and
a 60 minute per day. However, the control group did not participate in any activities
regularly. In the study, Takei hand grip dynamometer was used to measure upper
extremity strength. For the measurement of lower extremity strength, standing broad
jump–vertical jump, wall squat test and Takei leg dynamometer strength tests were
utilized. The statistical analyses of the data were realized by using SPSS 21.0 package
program.
Results: The means of after eight weeks, leg strength test (pre:22.47±13.12;
post:30.90±13.87; p=.005) wall squat test (pre:23.55±10.95; post:30.92±13.87; p=.005) and
dominant hand grip strength (pre:11.35±5.74; post:14.55±7.18; p=.024) were found more
significant than the means of baseline in exercise group. But, It was not significant
differences between post measurements of exercise and control groups (p>0.05).
Conclusion: The findings of the study have revealed that 8-week ball-handling training
program made a positive effect on upper-lower extremity strength of individuals with
Down syndrome. However, it is assumed that if the program implemented is
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved.
© 2015 – 2017 Open Access Publishing Group
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THE EFFECT OF 8-WEEK BALL-HANDLING TRAINING PROGRAM
ON UPPER-LOWER EXTREMITY MUSCULAR STRENGTH OF INDIVIDUALS WITH DOWN SYNDROME
maintained for a longer period of time, the positive effect of the training on individuals
with DS will increase.
Keywords: ball-handling training, upper-lower extremity muscular strength, Down
syndrome
1. Introduction
Down Syndrome (DS) is a congenital, autosomal anomaly characterized with growth
and intellectual disability . It has been stated that the life quality of individuals with DS
may be poor because of their hypotenuse muscular nature. This hypotenuse muscular
nature has been reported to affect DS individuals’ self-care and academic skills
negatively (Agiovlasitis et al., 2009; Carmeli et al., 2002; Pitetti et al., 99 . DS adults’
muscular strength, endurance and dynamic stability have been considered very
significant for a good quality of life and functional independence (Carmeli et al., 2002).
In line with this, Mendonca et al.
’s study on individuals with DS has put forward
that leg strength is connected with aerobic and physical conditioning capacity. When
related studies in the literature are examined, there are various exercise programs
intended for the development of DS individuals’ muscular tonus. Specifically, it has
been detected that progressive resistance training has been utilized to develop DS
individuals’ muscular strength in general Cowley et al.,
Shields et al., 2013;
Shields et al., 2010; Shields et al., 2008). However, there are some studies in the
literature which have pointed out that this training method increases the risk of
disability (Kolber et al., 2010; Phadke et al., 2009). In line with this, it has been claimed
that resilient cyclical training leads to the growth of low-grade systemic inflammation
in DS sedentary male individuals (Rosety-Rodriguez et al., 2013). In this regard, using
different training methods aimed at muscular strength and other features have been
suggested in normal (Biçer et al., 2015; Özdal, 2016a; Özdal, 2016b) and disabled
persons (Karakoc, 2016; Mayda et al., 2016; Shields et al., 2013; Tsimaras and Fotiadou,
2004). In their study, Worrell et al (1994) have stated that the fact of static stretching
practices’ effectiveness on the development of muscular strength is not a new notion. In
addition to this, the study has put forward that utilizing static stretching practices 5
days a week through 3 weeks enhances eccentric torque strength at the rate of 8.5 % and
concentric torque strength of 11.2% (Worrell et al., 1994). Regarding this finding, Rubini
et al. (2007) lay emphasis on the positive effect of 3-week static stretching practices on
the development of muscular strength.
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Stauber et al. (1994) conducted a study implementing a 4-week long (3 times a
week stretching exercise on mice’s soleus muscles and it was concluded that there was
a significant increase in the muscle mass at the rate of 13% and the muscle tendons as a
rate of 30%. Similarly, Coutinho et al. (2004) held a study involving a 3-week long
stretching exercise
minutes
days a week on mice’s soleus muscles and revealed
that a 16% increase in the soleus muscle tendons was observed. Ball-handling is an
important personal offence skill for various basketball positions, such as self-defence,
dribbling the ball and playing the game (Franciosi et al., 2012). It is highlighted that an
athlete who can perform Ball-handling movements well can also perform his/her
movements with the ball compatibly and also ball control very well Kocić et al., 2016).
In Ball-handling training programs, when the muscles in low extremity are considered
to be working in static condition especially in stance position, the discussion about
whether this situation has an effect on DS individuals’ muscular tonus or not emerges.
In addition to this argument, another concern is whether upper extremity muscles are
affected or not during technical movements, such as bouncing the ball, lobbing it and
turning it around the head, waist and knees. When the related literature is examined,
there is a limited number of studies on Kocić et al.,
et al., 2015; Zeller et al.,
Hamamioğlu et al.,
Belkacem et al.,
Monfort
. In general, whether there is an
effect of ball-handling exercises or not on athletes’ performance efficiency in basketball
and football technical training has been investigated. Nevertheless, no studies on ballhandling regarding DS individuals have been come across in the literature. Therefore,
this study seeks to find out the effect of 8-week Ball-handling Traning Program (BTP)
on DS individuals’ upper and lower muscular strength.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Design
As a first step of our study, a contact meeting was arranged and 25 DS individuals
(twenty five people who had been medically diagnosed with trisomy DS), who attend
to special education and rehabilitation centres and have been found appropriate
according to our study participation criteria, attended the meeting. Two out of 25
families having DS children refused to participate in the study. Twenty three DS
individuals have been divided into two groups with random method sampling (Clark
and Westerberg, 2009); namely Exercise Group (EG-12 individuals) and Control Group
(CG-11 individuals). However, 2 DS participants in EG did not attend the study
regularly and so those participants were excluded from the study. In summarize, the
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study was conducted on 21 DS participants [10 people EG (4 male, 6 female), 11 people
CG (6 male, 5 female)].
Study Participation Criteria (Rosety-Rodriguez et al., 2013); Study participation
criteria selects for individuals who do not have atlantoaxial instability, thyroid disease,
orthopaedic problems, attend a sportive activity for at least 6 months, smoking and
drinking habits, congenital heart disease, but the individuals who would attend the
study should have mildly intellectual disability (IQ=50-70) level reported by specialists
in the hospital report.
Figure 1: Participant Flow Chart
Information meeting for parents
(n=25)
Number of parents who
refuse to participate (n= 2)
Randomization (the toss of a coin)
Analyses of Exercise Group
Baseline measurements
(n=12)
Exercise Group
Excluded (n= 2)
(not to participate two weeks)
Analyses of Control Group
Baseline measurements
(n=11)
Exercise Group
Post measurements
Analyses (n= 10)
Statistical Analyses
Exercise Group
Pre-post measurements (n= 10)
Control Group
Post measurements
Analyses (n= 11)
Statistical Analyses
Control Group
Pre-post measurements (n= 11)
Statistical Analysis of Exercise and Control Groups
Baseline-Post Measurements
(n=21)
BTP program including warm-up (10 minutes), main period (40 minutes) and cooldown (10 minutes) sections, 60 minutes in total each day was applied to the Exercise
Group 2 days a week throughout 8 weeks. On the other hand, the Control group did
not attend any activities regularly throughout 8 weeks. At the end of the study, the DS
participants in the Control Group were taken to ball-handling exercises.
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At the pre-training and post-training periods of the 8-week training, all DS
participants’ upper and lower extremity muscular strengths were measured. In order to
measure lower extremity muscular strength, wall squat test, Takei leg dynamometer,
leg strength, standing long jump and vertical jump were utilized. On the other hand,
Takei hand grip test was used to measure upper extremity muscular strength. At the
beginning of the study, all participants were informed about the study and signed an
informed consent form, which was approved by the Human Ethics Committee of
Cukurova University numbered 07-03-2014/29. Besides, a questionnaire involving
demographic features of Down syndrome individuals was formed and administered to
the participant families.
Table 1: BTP Including Participants with DS in Exercise Group
(Ince et al., 2006; Krause et al., 1999)
WARM-UP
5min. jogging
MAIN PERIOD
5min.
40min.
stretching
Ball-handling movements
exercises
a. Jogging
COOL-DOWN
5min. jogging
5min. stretching
exercises
FIGURES
EXPLANATIONS
Figure I.
Throwing the ball into the air with two hands and
a. Jogging
catching it again. Then, bouncing it in front of the body
b. Stretching
b. Stretching
with two hands.
Stretching
Figure II.
Turning the ball around legs on the ground.
Stretching
exercises
Figure III.
Drifting the ball by figuring 8 around legs.
exercises
Figure IV.
Turning the ball around the head.
Figure V.
Bouncing and catching the ball with two hands on the
1. Forward and
left hand side strongly.
backward head
Bouncing and catching the ball with two hands in front
stretch
of the body strongly.
2. Sideways head
Bouncing and catching the ball with two hands on the
stretch
1. Forward and
backward head
stretch
Figure VI.
2. Sideways
head stretch
Figure VII.
3. Chest and
shoulders
stretch
4. Deltoid
muscle stretch
5. Triceps
muscle stretch
6. Overhead
stretch
7. Lateral trunk
muscle stretch
8. Arched back
right hand side strongly.
Figure VIII.
Turning the ball around waist.
Figure IX.
Turning the ball around the ankle of the juxtaposed feet.
Figure X.
Taking the ball from the bottom to the top of the body
while turning it. .
Figure XI.
Throwing and catching the ball to the right and left by
tapping the fingers on the head.
Figure XII.
Throwing and catching the ball with finger tips in the
chest position.
Figure XIII.
Throwing and catching the ball with finger tips in knee
line.
European Journal of Special Education Research - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2017
3. Chest and
shoulders stretch
4. Deltoid muscle
stretch
5. Triceps muscle
stretch
6. Overhead stretch
7. Lateral trunk
muscle stretch
8. Arched back
stretch
9. Leg extensor and
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stretch
Figure IX.
9. Leg extensor
and pelvic
Figure XV.
flexor stretch
10. Spinal twist
Figure XVI.
stretch
11.
Figure XVII.
Paravertebral
muscle stretch
Figure XVIII.
12. Loosen-up
stretch
Figure IXX.
13. Upper back
prayer
Figure XX.
14. Double
High pounding with left hand on the left side in basic
pelvic flexor
position.
stretch
High pounding with right hand on the right side in basic
10. Spinal twist
position.
stretch
In basic position, pounding the ball with the right and
11. Paravertebral
left hand from right to left.
muscle stretch
In basic position, throwing the ball into the air with right
12. Loosen-up
hand and catching it again.
stretch
In basic position, throwing the ball into the air with left
13. Upper back
hand and catching it again.
prayer
In basic position, throwing the ball into the air with two
14.Double knee-to-
hands and catching it again.
chest stretch
In basic position, throwing the ball into the air with two
hands and clapping your hand and catching it again.
knee-to-chest
Figure XXI.
stretch
In basic position, drifting the ball around the left leg.
Figure XXII.
In basic position, drifting the ball around the right leg.
Figure XXIII.
In basic position, pounding the ball low with two hands
on the right side.
Figure IVXX.
In basic position, pounding the ball low with two hands
on the left side.
2.2. Instruments
2.2.1. Takei hand dynamometer test: While the individual was standing, dominant and
non-dominant hand measurement were held by adjusting the instrument to the
individual’s wrist and by placing it to
0
abduction. During the measurement, the arm
was stretched (MacDonncha et al., 1999; España-Romero et al., 2010; Roberts et al., 2011;
Mayda et al., 2016).
2.2.2. Takei leg dynamometer test: The participants were positioned on the
dynamometer after each movement was demonstrated on the dynamometer. In the
upright position, the dynamometer chain was adjusted according to the participant’s
knee level. In the stance position in basketball, while the participant was looking across
and also his/her back was upright, he/she was asked to lift up the dynamometer chain
by relying on his/her legs strength. The value measured was recorded as kg (Biçer et al.,
2015; Karakoc, 2016; Mayda et al., 2016; Bilgiç et al., 2016a).
2.2.3. Vertical jump test: Takei jump meter instrument was used to measure vertical
jump. The individual jumped upwards with his/her all power without bounding and
taking a step on a time and distance scaled soft floor and the distance he/she jumped
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was recorded as centimetre degree on the instrument (Bilgiç et al., 2016b; Milliken et al.
2008; Giagazoglou et al., 2013, Juneja et al., 2010).
2.2.4. Standing broad jump test: The individual performed the standing broad jump
from the back of marked line with his/her feet to the best of his/her ability. The distance
was measured in the form of meter by detecting the distance between the marked line
and the closest trace the participant had (Wang and Ju, 2002; Guidetti et al., 2010, Juneja
et al., 2010).
2.2.5. Wall squat test: During this test, the participant was asked to wait in half-done
squat position. In this position, the participant’s back was against a smooth vertical
wall, his/her arms were in parallel extension towards the floor facing front of the body
and
in
the
leg-shoulder
width
(http://www.topendsports.com/testing/tests/wall-sit.htm,
apart
position
[Accessed;
24/02/2017];
Mclntosh et al., 1998). When the participant was positioned in half-done squat, the
chronometer was started. The timing started when one foot was lifted off the ground
and was stopped when the participant could not maintain the position, the chronometer
was stopped and the value detected was recorded. After a period, the other leg was
tested in the same way. All measurements were carried out twice and the best value
from two measurements was used.
2.3. Statistical analyses
All statistical analyses were conducted using the SPSS package program, version 21.0
(SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL). Descriptive statistics were used for the means and standard
deviations. Shapiro-Wilk test was used for normality distribution of the data. Nonparametric tests were made since the exercise and control groups did not show normal
distribution (p<0.05). While comparing paired groups, Wilcoxon signed rank test was
performed and to compare independent groups Mann-Whitney U test was used.
3. Results
Table 2: Comparing exercise group and control group by demographic characteristics
Characteristics
Age
Height
Groups
n
Mean
S.D.
Mean Rank
Exercise
10
22.50
5.25
13.00
Control
11
19.36
6.28
9.18
Total
21
20.86
5.89
Exercise
10
153.10
7.71
European Journal of Special Education Research - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2017
Z
p
-1.414
.157
12.50
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Body Weight
Control
11
150.09
7.20
9.64
Total
21
151.52
7.42
Exercise
10
61.41
15.22
10.90
Control
11
60.44
14.17
11.09
Total
21
60.90
14.32
-1.059
.290
-.071
.944
The mean values of DS participants’ age, height and weight features are demonstrated
in the order respectively (20.86±5.89 year old; 151.52±7.42 cm; 60.90±14.32 kg).
Demographic characteristics of exercise and control groups were compared and we did
not find any significant differences between them (p>0.05).
Table 3: Comparing the results of pre- and post-tests in Exercise Group
Strength Tests of
n
Mean S.D.
Leg Strength (Pre-test)
10
22.47 13.12 negative ranks
.00
Leg Strength (Post-test)
10
30.90 19.16
positive ranks
5.50
Vertical Jump (Pre-test)
10
13.60 7.03
negative ranks
3.17
Vertical Jump (Post-test)
10
15.20 7.15
positive ranks
5.92
Standing Broad Jump (Pre-test)
10
66.70 34.63 negative ranks
2.50
Standing Broad Jump (Post-test)
10
75.00 43.06
positive ranks
6.50
Wall Squat (Pre-test)
10
23.55 10.95 negative ranks
.00
Wall Squat (Post-test)
10
30.92 13.87
positive ranks
5.50
Hand Grip Dominant (Pre-test)
10
11.35 5.74
negative ranks
3.50
Hand Grip Dominant (Post-test)
10
14.55 7.18
positive ranks
5.19
Hand Grip Non-Dominant (Pre-test)
10
11.10 6.29
negative ranks
4.50
Hand Grip Non-Dominant (Post-test)
10
14.10 6.37
positive ranks
5.75
Upper and Lower Extremities
Rank
Mean Rank
z
p
-2.80 .005*
-1.56 .119
-1.13 .260
-2.80 .005*
-2.26 .024*
-1.89 .059
*p<0.05
The means of measurements after 8 weeks of leg strength test (baseline: 22.47±13.12;
after 8 weeks: 30.90±13.87) wall squat test (baseline: 23.55±10.95; after 8 weeks:
30.92±13.87) and dominant hand grip strength (baseline: 11.35±5.74; after 8 weeks:
14.55±7.18) in exercise group were found higher than the means of pre-test. Hence,
regarding exercise group, statistically significant differences between pre- and posttraining were found respectively (p=.005; p=.005; p=.024).
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Table 4: Comparing pre-and post-test results regarding control group
Strength Tests of
n
Mean S.D.
Leg Strength (Pre-test)
11
25.36 12.56 negative ranks
4.50
Leg Strength (Post-test)
11
25.13 12.62
positive ranks
1.00
Vertical Jump (Pre-test)
11
14.45 4.63
negative ranks
5.14
Vertical Jump (Post-test)
11
13.91 4.78
positive ranks
4.50
Standing Broad Jump (Pre-test)
11
65.18 21.27 negative ranks
4.08
Standing Broad Jump (Post-test)
11
64.55 21.00
positive ranks
3.50
Wall Squat (Pre-test)
11
21.27 9.13
negative ranks
4.08
Wall Squat (Post-test)
11
20.73 9.18
positive ranks
3.50
Hand Grip Dominant (Pre-test)
11
15.45 5.56
negative ranks
3.00
Hand Grip Dominant (Post-test)
11
15.44 5.67
positive ranks
1.50
Hand Grip Non-Dominant (Pre-test)
11
14.91 6.09
negative ranks
2.50
Hand Grip Non-Dominant (Post-test)
11
14.83 6.09
positive ranks
1.00
Upper and Lower Extremities
Rank
Mean Rank
z
p
-2.205 .03
-1.732 .08
-1.897 .06
-1.897 .06
.000 1.00
-1.069 .29
*p<0.05
After 8-week training, the means of leg strength test (pre-test: 25.36±12.56; post-test:
25.13±12.62) in control group were found lower than the means of pre-test. So,
statistically significant differences were detected between pre-training period and posttraining period (p=.003).
Table 5: Comparing pre-test and post test results of exercise and control groups
Strength Tests of
Upper and Lower Extremities
Leg Strength (Pre-test)
Leg Strength (Post-test)
Vertical Jump (Pre-test)
Vertical Jump (Post-test)
Standing Broad Jump (Pre-test)
Standing Broad Jump (Post-test)
Wall Squat (Pre-test)
Groups
n
Mean S.D.
Mean rank
Exercise
10
22.47 13.12
10.40
Control
11
25.36 12.56
11.55
Exercise
10
30.90 19.16
11.90
Control
11
25.13 12.62
10.18
Exercise
10
13.60
7.03
10.60
Control
11
14.45
4.63
11.36
Exercise
10
15.20
7.15
11.45
Control
11
13.91
4.78
10.59
Exercise
10
66.70 34.63
11.40
Control
11
65.18 21.27
10.64
Exercise
10
75.00 43.06
11.80
Control
11
64.55 21.00
10.27
Exercise
10
23.55 10.95
11.60
Control
11
21.27
10.45
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9.13
z
p
-.423 .672
-.634 .526
-.282 .778
-.318 .750
-.282 .778
-.563 .573
-.423 .672
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Wall Squat (Post-test)
Hand Grip Dominant (Pre-test)
Hand Grip Dominant (Post-test)
Hand Grip Non-Dominant (Pre-test)
Hand Grip Non-Dominant (Post-test)
Exercise
10
30.92 13.87
13.70
Control
11
20.73
9.18
8.55
Exercise
10
11.35
5.74
8.95
Control
11
15.45
5.56
12.86
Exercise
10
14.55
7.18
10.60
Control
11
15.44
5.67
11.36
Exercise
10
11.10
6.29
9.25
Control
11
14.91
6.09
12.59
Exercise
10
14.10
6.37
10.65
Control
11
14.83
6.09
11.32
-1.903 .057
-1.447 .148
-.282 .778
-1.236 .216
-.247 .805
No significant differences were found between exercise and control groups regarding
all parameters (pre-test and post-test) (p>0.05).
4. Discussion
Intellectually disabled individuals’ physical fitness components’ strength, velocity,
endurance, flexibility and so on.) being low shows that those individuals have low level
of physical activities. Furthermore, the related literature points out that this low
physical fitness may affect not only their social involvement, but also their health
problems negatively (Salaun et al., 2012). In DS individuals, muscular strength has been
considered as the most significant physical fitness parameter since DS individuals have
hypotenuse nature because this condition has been reported to affect those individuals’
daily life skills negatively (Agiovlasitis et al., 2009). Several studies in the literature state
that there is a strong relationship between DS individuals’ muscle hypotonus and
muscle strength (Sharav and Bowman, 1992; Pitetti et al., 1992; Priosti et al., 2013). In
their study, John et al.
emphasized that DS individuals’ muscular strength may
be affected negatively because of their joint laxity and hypotonus muscles.
In another study, Cameli et al. (2002) compared the muscular strength of
individuals with Mental Retardation (MR) disability and the individuals with Down
Syndrome+Mental Retardation (DSMR). Cameli et al. (2002) found out that the
muscular strength of individuals with Down syndrome + Mental Retardation (DSMR)
was lower than the muscular strength of individuals with Mental Retardation (MR). In
line with that, upper and lower extremity muscular strength of DS individuals was
found to have 50% lower strength when compared to their mentally retarded peers
without DS (Pitetti et al., 1992; Croce et al., 1996). This finding points out that it is
essential to develop DS individuals’ muscular strength.
In our study, after 8-week training the means of measurements were found
higher than the means of baseline in exercise group; such as leg strength test (baseline:
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22.47±13.12; after 8 weeks: 30.90±13.87), wall squat test (baseline: 23.55±10.95; after 8
weeks: 30.92±13.87) and dominant hand grip strength (baseline: 11.35±5.74; after 8
weeks: 14.55±7.18). Therefore, in the exercise group significant differences were found
between baseline and after 8-week treatment respectively (p=.005; p=.005; p=.024).
Mendonca et al. (2010) signify the importance of lower part body development because
they suggest that leg strength is closely related to aerobic and physical exercise
capacity. In addition, 10-week progressive resistance training program administered to
DS individuals (17 male, 6 female, age: 15.6±1.6 year) was reported to develop low
extremity strength. However, it was stated that upper extremity strength was not
developed (Shields and Taylor, 2010). In our study, this is an important finding
although our training lasted 8 weeks, which took shorter duration than the training in
Shields and Taylor’s study. Nevertheless, a development was observed between prepost upper and lower extremity strengths in the exercise group. This situation might
have stemmed from DS individuals’ easy orientation to ball-handling training and in
the first weeks unexperienced minor situations, such as aches which are mostly seen in
progressive resistance training program. However, any adverse events that occurred
during training (including minor events such as delayed onset muscle soreness) were
recorded by the student mentor during the participant’s exercise.
In some studies in the related literature, it was stated that a significant
development takes place in upper and lower extremity muscular strengths when
exercise programs devoted to major muscle groups are put into use 2-3 days a week, 1012 weeks in total for individuals with DS (Cowley et.al., 2011, Shields et.al., 2008,
Tsimaras and Fotiadou, 2004). In another study, Oxyzoglou et al. (2007) conducted a
comparative study to examine pre-post jumping and strength skills between two
different groups including 121 adults in total; namely, the Handball Group (51
individuals, average age mean 13.7±1.5) and the physical education group (70
individuals, average age mean 13.5±96). The participants in the handball group were
trained 3 days a week, 60 minutes a day doing handball ball-handling drills, horizontalvertical jumping rounds, fast offense practices and various defencing drills. On the
other hand, some exercises oriented to sport techniques were administered to the
Physical Education group. In both groups, the participants’ jumping and strength skills
were compared before and after the training sessions.
The findings of the study revealed that the participants’ horizontal-vertical
jumping skills and right hand grip in the handball group developed more than the
participants in the physical education group. However, it was pointed out that no
significant difference existed in left hand grip strength (Oxyzoglou et al., 2007).
Similarly, we can state that the reason for the positive development of EG dominant
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hand statistically may stem from using dominant hand actively during BTP. In our
study, EG pre-post test results revealed that the horizontal and vertical jumping mean
values showed a positive development but not found as statistically significant (p>0.05).
It can be said that BTP was ineffective on the development of DS individuals’ jumping
skills. However, in Hamamioğlu and Çakmakçı’s
study,
male participants
aged between 9-14 were divided into two groups, namely, the exercise group (20
participants) and the control group (20 participants); and the participants in the exercise
group were trained for about 1.5 hours a day by implementing ball handling, pass
techniques and drippling throughout 12 weeks involving 2 days a week to compare
their skills in jumping (horizontal-vertical), flexibility, speed with the participants in the
control group (20 individuals). During that period, the control group went on doing
Physical education lessons. When pre-test and post-test results were examined, no
significant difference was found between the groups regarding vertical jumping.
However, horizontal jumping feature was found to have developed in the exercise
group while it remained the same in the control group Hamamioğlu and Çakmakçı,
2011). In addition to ball-handling exercises, we suggest that using pass techniques and
drippling exercises may be effective in developing horizontal jumping feature. In
another study, Kokkonen et al. (2007) carried out a research involving 38 university
students. 38 participants were also divided into two groups; the exercise group (8 male,
11 female) and the control group (8 male, 11 female). The exercise group participants
were made work out static stretching exercises directed for extremity major muscle
groups. However, the control group (8 male, 11 female) did not attend any regular
activity. The results of the study showed that in some skills, such as standing broad
jump (2.3%), vertical jumping (6.7%) strength [knee flexion (15.3%) and extension
(32.4%) one repetition maximum (1 RM] and maintenance in strength [1RM 60 % knee
flexion (30.4%) and the number of extension (28.5%)]; the values obtained in the exercise
group were much better than the control group revealing a significant difference
between the two groups (Kokkonen et al., 2007). Considering two separate studies
conducted by Hamamioğlu
and Kokkonen et al.
, since the two studies’
training periods (10-12 weeks) lasted much more time than the training sessions in our
study we can state that long training periods may have affected DS individuals’
horizontal and vertical jumping skills negatively.
In our study, EG pre and post-tests dominant hand grip strength was observed
to have developed in a positive way (p=.024) although no significant difference was
found out in CG (p>0.05). It was noted that there was a positive and high correlation
between hand grip strength and functional performance, especially in self-care skills
Souza et al.,
. Sensorial and motor tasks realized by hand individuals’
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performance for survival in daily life (Priosti et al., 2013). Therefore, we can state that
hand strength has a significant place to fulfil daily life activities. John et al. (2016)
suggest hand grip and finger exercise programs for individuals with DS because of their
joint laxity and hypotenuse muscular feature.
In our study, when CG pre-post test results on leg strength were examined, a
decrease was observed in the mean values of leg strength test (p=.003) while no
significant difference was found out after 8 weeks of training (p>0.05). After 8 weeks,
the means of leg strength test (baseline: 25.36±12.56; after 8 weeks: 25.13±12.62) in the
control group were found lower than the means of baseline. Therefore, a significant
difference was found between pre-and post-tests in the control group (p=.003). The
other parameters did not seen significant differences between pre-tests and post-tests in
control group.
Regarding pre-and post-test leg strength test results of the exercise group, it can
be said that there has been a development in the participants’ leg strength. In this
regard, we can conclude that ball-handling training programs may develop DS
participants’ low extremity strength.
Based on the comparison regarding pre- and post-training results of the exercise
group, it can be stated that there has been a positive development; however, no
significant difference has been come across between the control group and the post-test
results. We consider that the reason for this situation may have occurred because of the
different pre-test values numerically between the control and exercise group although
no statistically significant difference was found (p>0.05). In this respect, we can note
that extending training period may create a change on the results.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to appreciate all special education and rehabilitation centres and
DS individuals for their willingness to participate in this study.
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