European Journal of Education Studies
ISSN: 2501 - 1111
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1111
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
Volume 3 │ Issue 4 │ 2017
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.345421
TEACHING PRACTICES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER
ORDER THINKING SKILLS IN SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
IN THE NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON
Endeley Margaret Nalova,
Kintati Rosette Shalanyuyi
Department of Curriculum Studies and Teaching
Faculty of Education, University of Buea, Cameroon
Abstract:
Higher order thinking skills are essential for the 21st century youth and the workforce.
There is however, concern on the extent to which various teaching practices enhance
these skills in the secondary school student in Cameroon. The study therefore examined
the influence of teaching practices on higher order thinking skills on secondary school
students in the North West Region of Cameroon. Three hypotheses sought to examine
whether teaching methods, teaching learning materials and assessment activities
influenced higher order thinking skills among secondary school students in the North
West region of Cameroon. The study was a descriptive survey and data were collected
using a questionnaire and an observation guide. The sample consisted of 320 students.
Data were analyzed inferentially using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation.
Findings revealed that teaching practices influence higher order thinking skills in
secondary school students in the North West region of Cameroon only to a small extent.
Specifically, teaching methods influence higher order thinking skills but assessment
activities, and teaching learning materials do not influence higher order thinking skills.
Based on the findings, recommendations are discussed.
Keywords: critical thinking, higher order thinking, teaching practices, teaching
methods, instructional materials, assessment, secondary schools, Cameroon
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved.
© 2015 – 2017 Open Access Publishing Group
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Endeley Margaret Nalova, Kintati Rosette Shalanyuy
TEACHING PRACTICES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS IN
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON
1. Introduction
The high unemployment among secondary school leavers poses fundamental questions
about self – employment and creativity among secondary school students. It also raises
questions about the skills students are impacted with in secondary schools and its
relevance to the job market. Cameroon aims at alleviating poverty and becoming an
industrialized country by 2035 (Cameroon, 2009) and so educational practices must
reflect this vision by equipping students with the relevant skills. We need thinking
students who can incessantly respond to real-world demands (Vijayaratnam, 2012).
Higher order thinking skills include critical, logical, reflective, metacognitive, and
creative thinking. Successful applications of the skills result in explanations, decisions,
performances, and products that are valid within the context of available knowledge
and experience and that promote continued growth in these and other intellectual skills
(king, Goodson and Rohani, n.d).
The idea that teachers and the teaching practices they implement are important
for students’ educational outcomes has been steadily gaining grounds. Instructional
practices refer to the activities teachers carry out in the classroom like teaching
methods, activities, assessment and classroom management techniques. Research has
linked instructional practices to students’ academic achievement. What teachers do in
the classroom is a good predictor of their students’ achievement ”rophy,
; Seidel &
Shavelson, 2007; Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008). Instructional practices consistently
predict students’ learning outcomes. If students are not exposed to and do not master
the ability to think insightfully and critically, they will be unable to compete in a
modern global economy. The instructional processes, materials and assessment are
critical in enhancing higher order thinking skills. It is on the basis of this that the study
seeks to find out if teaching practices like assessment, teaching methods, instructional
material used in secondary school classrooms in Cameroon enhance higher order
thinking skills in secondary school students.
2. Review of Literature
2.1 Teaching Methods and the Development of Higher order thinking Skills
Haladyua (1997) states that for higher order thinking to be visible in the classroom, the
teacher’s role must shift from that of an over knowing body to that of a facilitator.
That means the classroom must be student-centered. This supports the open expression
of ideas, provides active modeling of thinking processes, develops thinking skills and
motivates students to learn. Walker (2003) asserts that an assortment of questioning
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TEACHING PRACTICES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS IN
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON
tactics exists to promote critical thinking. Depending on how a question is asked, the
student may use various critical thinking skills such as interpretation, analysis, and
recognition of assumptions to form a conclusion. Questions are only as good as the
thought put into them and should go beyond knowledge level recall.
Guleker, (2015) reports that collaborative learning is one technique often scarce
in high educational settings where instructors rely on a combination of lectures and
discussions as their primary instructional method (Palmer 2002). The peer support
system makes it possible for the learner to internalize both external knowledge and
higher order thinking skills and to convert them into tools for intellectual functioning.
Also, students also find helpful, case studies, simulations and scenarios (Brookfied,
2013). Interactive lectures are a convenient active leaning strategy for university
professors as they can still rely on lecturing but make it more effective for learning. In
the literature cited by Brookfield (2006), it is stated that no lecture should contain more
than twenty-minute blocks of uninterrupted teacher talk.
McKeachie (2002) observes that discussion is a hybrid form of teaching because
students give and receive information and is often called the prototypic method and a
core component of active higher order thinking skills. However, it also leads to deeper
levels of learning because in order to build on each other’s ideas students need to
evaluate, create, apply and analyze the viewpoints of others (Hadjivanoy, 2007).
Arends (2004) opines that role play develops problem solving skills among
learners, provides situations, build skills for real world application when real world
experiences are not readily available. When assuming certain roles, learners try to
evaluate and analyze the situations by choosing words that best suit the incidence.
However, considering the point that no one method can be appropriate to ensure
reasonable learning outcomes, we must always advocate an eclectic approach in the use
of teaching methods (Tchombe, 2004) that do promote higher order thinking skills.
2.2 Teaching Learning Materials and the Development of Higher Order thinking
Skills
Tambo (2012) used the term educational technologies to describe teaching and learning
materials. He defines them as the various teaching materials devices or processes that
are capable of assisting the teacher to teach more effectively and helping learners to
learn more effectively. No teaching learning materials is worthless as far as the
development of higher order thinking skills is concerned. But what matters is the way
the teacher uses this material. Traditional resources like visual aids (maps, charts,
samples, objects, etc.) together with print resources like textbooks and journals can be
used to provoke a discussion, analysis, debate or serve as a basis for questioning, all of
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Endeley Margaret Nalova, Kintati Rosette Shalanyuy
TEACHING PRACTICES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS IN
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON
which stimulate critical thinking. According to Means and Olson (1994) technological
gadgets such as the computers, can stimulate problem solving and thinking activities
when they are used successfully. Kennedy (1994) explains that interactive computer
programs are a positive influence on the development of higher order thinking skills.
Information and Communication Technology should be employed as a stepping stone
to the discovery of new relationships between ideas. Baylor and Richchie (2002) found
that the level of constructivist modes of technology use, dictated the impact of the
technology on the higher order thinking. In stating the importance of ICTs in the
classroom and their capability of enhancing higher order thinking skills, Jonessen
(2000), states that ICTs help in simulation activities in the classrooms. He further states
that watching a lesson through simulation, learners can transfer what they view in the
simulation and solve new and concrete situations. Also through simulations, learners
can think deeply about the content they are learning and so are critical
2.3 Assessment and the Development of Higher Order Thinking Skills
Assessment is the process of gathering and interpreting evidence to make judgments
about student’s learning. It is the crucial link between learning outcomes, content and
teaching- learning activities. The purpose of assessment is to improve learners’
cognitive abilities as far as thinking skills are concerned, (Lipman, 2003). Researchers
have made several suggestions for designing assessment ideally suitable for assessing
higher order thinking skills. First, open ended problem types may be more appropriate
for assessing higher order thinking skills, than traditional multiple choice formats. Ku
(2009) argues that, available empirical evidence suggests that open ended measures
better capture the construct of higher order thinking because they are more sensitive to
the dispositional aspects of higher order thinking skills than are multiple choice
measures. For this reason, Ku recommends tests of mixed format, that is, both multiple
choice and open ended questions should be set to completely represent the cognitive
dispositional aspects of higher order thinking. To him, Teachers should adopt different
assessment methods, such as exercises that allow students to self-construct answers and
assignments that facilitate the practice of strategies used in thinking skills in everyday contexts.
When adopting multiple choice exercises, follow up questions should be given to probe students
underlying reasoning .
“ssessment tasks should also reflect
authentic
problems, contexts and
performances. This means that assessments should be based on simulations that
approximate real world problems. Test questions should require students to go beyond
the available information in the task to draw inferences or make evaluations. In
addition, problems should have more than one plausible or defensible solution, and
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Endeley Margaret Nalova, Kintati Rosette Shalanyuy
TEACHING PRACTICES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS IN
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON
there should be sufficient information and evidence within the tasks to enable students
to support multiple views.
3. Statement of the Problem
Cameroon’s vision to attain industrialization and poverty alleviation as stated in the
goals of vision 2035 requires higher order thinking skills. Yet schools seem to be
maintaining the old traditional practices which do not enhance higher order thinking
skills. There is usually a mismatch between skills offered in schools and those needed
outside the classroom (Adams, 2001).In trying to improve on the productivity of
learners as far as higher order thinking skills are concerned, the first ever educational
forum in Cameroon in 1995, prescribed a new vision for Cameroonian schools, in which
one of them was the intellectual development of the learner. Effort and reflections in
this direction led to the birth of a new pedagogic process, which was intended to
mobilize and encourage Cameroonian teachers to shun outdated teaching practices
such as rote learning and a call for a shift from teacher- centered to learner-centered
pedagogy in an attempt to improve higher cognitive skills among learners. Society is
increasingly demanding that secondary education produces school leavers functionally
ready for work as well as prepares them for higher education. However, teaching
practices do not seem to have changed to respond to this new vision, thus the study
attempts to establish the extent to which teaching practices enhance higher order
thinking skills in secondary school students.
4. Objective
The study aims at examining the extent to which teaching practices enhance higher
order thinking skills among secondary school students in the North West Region of
Cameroon.
4.1 Hypotheses
Teaching methods do not influence higher order thinking skills among
secondary
school students in the North West Region of Cameroon.
secondary school students in the North West Region of Cameroon.
Assessment activities do not influence higher order thinking skills among
Teaching learning materials do not influence higher order thinking skills among
secondary school students in the North West Region of Cameroon.
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Endeley Margaret Nalova, Kintati Rosette Shalanyuy
TEACHING PRACTICES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS IN
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON
4.2 Methodology
The study was a survey. An observation guide and a closed ended questionnaire
consisting of 32 items aimed at addressing teaching practices in developing higher
order thinking skills was designed with indicators of teaching practices as teaching
methods, assessment activities and teaching learning materials. Teaching practices in 4
classes were observed thrice each and through a random sampling technique, a total of
320 participants (students) were drawn from three divisions of the North West Region
namely, Bui, Mezam and Donga Mantung Division. To ensure reliability, test retest
reliability was conducted on 10 students from GBHS Bamenda town. The reliability was
calculated using Crobach Alpha which stood at 78 which signifies that the instrument
was reliable. The data were analysed inferentially using Pearson, Product Correlation
Coefficient. The decision level was at 0.05.
5. Results and Discussion
Results from the observation revealed that teachers made a commendable attempt to
make use of methods that enhance higher order thinking. This could be seen in the use
of open-ended questions and probing. Also, discussions which included expressing
contrary view points were common even though there was also place for the use of
lecture. Students were occasionally assigned to groups and given assignments to
present in class. With regard to assessment, many of the oral questions were recall
questions. However, take home assignments and sequential assessments had elements
of higher order thinking. For the most part only textbook and charts were used as
instructional material in class. Real objects were used only in the science laboratories.
No audio-visual resource was used. Results of the observation corroborate with those of
the questionnaire as seen below:
5.1 Teaching Methods and Higher Order Thinking Skills
Table 10: A correlation of teaching methods and higher order thinking skills
Teaching methods Higher order thinking skills
Teaching methods
Pearson Correlation
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
Sum of Squares and Cross-products
Covariance
N
Higher order thinking skills Pearson Correlation
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 3 │ Issue 4 │ 2017
.837*
.038
20464.000
8519.000
2923.429
1703.800
8
6
.837
1
*
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Endeley Margaret Nalova, Kintati Rosette Shalanyuy
TEACHING PRACTICES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS IN
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON
Sig. (2-tailed)
.038
Sum of Squares and Cross-products
8519.000
5307.333
Covariance
1703.800
1061.467
6
6
N
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
From table1, the correlation coefficient value is .837 which is significantly above 0.05
level. This means that, teaching methods have a significant influence on higher order
thinking skills amongst secondary school students in the North West Region of
Cameroon, indicating that, teachers make use of teaching methods, which enhance
higher order thinking skills. Therefore, creativity, problem solving, decision making,
critical thinking, are enhanced in the learners through teaching methods. Research has
shown that these skills can be significantly enhanced through interventions in
classroom teaching practices particularly through methods that do encourage or favor
the transmission of these skills (Hopson, 2001). Such methods support the open
expression of ideas, provides active modeling of thinking processes, develops thinking
skills and motivates students to learn. With the use of methods that enhance higher
order thinking there is a probability that the students will be able to respond to realworld demands Vijayaratnam,
and can meaningfully contribute to Cameroon’s
attainment of vision 2035, everything being equal.
5.2 Assessment Activities and the Promotion of Higher Order thinking Skills
Table 2: A correlation of assessment activities and higher order thinking Skills
Assessment
Pearson Correlation
activities
Sig. (2-tailed)
Sum of Squares and Cross-
Assessment
Higher order
activities
thinking Skills
1
-.041
.938
21890.875
-420.000
3127.268
-84.000
8
6
-.041
1
products
Covariance
N
Higher order
Pearson Correlation
thinking Skills
Sig. (2-tailed)
Sum of Squares and Cross-
.938
-420.000
5307.333
-84.000
1061.467
6
6
products
Covariance
N
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Endeley Margaret Nalova, Kintati Rosette Shalanyuy
TEACHING PRACTICES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS IN
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON
From the Table 2 above, the correlation coefficient value is -.041 which is below the
significant level of 0.05. This means that assessment activities do not influence higher
order thinking skills amongst secondary students in the North West Region of
Cameroon. Marso and Piggo (1993) concluded that, many teachers do understand the
power of higher order thinking skills in elevating problem solving and creativity in our
society, but they do hardly test students beyond the first two stages that is knowledge
and comprehension. Studies analyzing classroom tests over many decades have found
that most teacher-made tests require only recall of knowledge or information. Bloom in
his taxonomy of educational objectives, lists different words that teachers can use to set
questions for different levels but teachers do not seem to be making use of this
taxonomy. Therefore, there is a likelihood that students leave school without the system
measuring the extent to which critical thinking has been enhanced. As such, there is no
guarantee that they will be able to compete in a global economy.
5.3 Teaching Materials and the Promotion of Higher Order thinking Skills
Table 3: A correlation of Teaching learning materials and Higher Order thinking Skills
Teaching
Pearson Correlation
learning
Sig. (2-tailed)
materials
Sum
of
Squares
Teaching learning
Higher Order
materials
thinking Skills
1
-.754
.084
and
Cross-
124002.875
-17333.667
17714.696
-3466.733
8
6
-.754
1
products
Covariance
N
Higher Order
Pearson Correlation
thinking Skills
Sig. (2-tailed)
Sum
of
Squares
.084
and
Cross-
-17333.667
5307.333
-3466.733
1061.467
6
6
products
Covariance
N
From Table 3 above, the correlation coefficient value is -.754 which is significantly
below the significant level of 0.05. This means that teaching learning materials do not
influence higher order thinking skills among secondary school students in the North
West region of Cameroon and so students may not develop higher order thinking skills
like decision making, problem solving, logical reasoning and creativity which are
important elements for societal development. At this rate vision, 2035 may not be
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Endeley Margaret Nalova, Kintati Rosette Shalanyuy
TEACHING PRACTICES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS IN
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON
attained. Findings by Nooman (2009) show that teaching and learning materials do
improvements on the thinking capacity of learners. Pescatores (2007) discovered that
most teachers use mainly textbooks as teaching aids, though textbooks depending on
the content may promote higher order thinking skills. Jonessen (2000) argues that the
21st century classroom does not only need textbooks as teaching aids but rather
textbooks must work in conjunction with modern technological gadgets like motion
pictures, televisions, video tapes, computers etc. for effective transmission of higher
order thinking skills to take place.
6. Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusively, it is worthy of note that teaching practices enhance higher order thinking
skills only to a small extent. Methods, assessment activities and teaching learning
materials, form a package which is similar to a system. This means that when one
component is affected, the whole system is affected. If teachers use teaching methods
that can promote higher order thinking skills such as discovery and project based
learning, but the teaching materials are not there to facilitate teaching, teaching may not
be effective. Barel (2006) opines that when students leave school without these skills,
they do not function well in the society as they cannot find jobs that can match with the
skills they obtain from schools. As a result, many educationists continue to say that, if
our classroom practices do not change from enhancing lower order thinking to
enhancing higher order thinking, then it is a waste of resources because spending
money and time to educate people who cannot serve themselves and the society in
which they operate, is wasteful.
For Cameroon to achieve the goals of vision 2035, especially those on poverty
reduction and industrialization, secondary school teaching practices must shift from
traditional methods on teaching methods, assessment activities, teaching learning
materials and instructional objectives that only concentrate on the development of
lower or order thinking skills like knowledge and comprehension, to those that
promote higher order thinking skills, such as application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation.
Based on the above findings it is recommended that teachers as professionals
should make a conscious effort to employ teaching practices that do promote higher
order thinking skills. For them to successfully make use of appropriate teaching
practices they need support from the school management. Specifically, the following
strategies may help improve teaching practices: professional development should be
accorded to teachers, so that teachers can be equipped with the various skills needed to
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Endeley Margaret Nalova, Kintati Rosette Shalanyuy
TEACHING PRACTICES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS IN
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION OF CAMEROON
transform thinking capacities of the learners as far as the development of higher order
thinking skills are concerned. Also, teachers should be provided with enough teaching
resources, so that they can fulfill the task of developing higher order thinking skills.
Furthermore, they should make use of advanced technologies such as computers,
radios, televisions to develop their thinking skills. Teachers should also carry out
personal research in order to improve on their effectiveness.
Also, pre-service teacher education institutions must improve teacher training.
Hence, they must teach cognitive skills of the ”loom’s taxonomy to pre-service teachers
so that they can teach higher order thinking in the classroom. All stake holders in
education should be adequately enlightened through workshops, seminars and
conferences on the need to emphasize higher order thinking skills.
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