European Journal of Education Studies
ISSN: 2501 - 1111
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1111
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
10.5281/zenodo.203721 Volume 2│Issue 11│2016
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND
DISTANCE LEARNING: A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN
DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
Rahma M. Msoffei
Assistant Lecturer, The Open University of Tanzania
Abstract:
Open and Distance Learning could not only help in gender equality and women
empowerment, but also may facilitate the effectiveness and strengthening of women
education. However, there is little knowledge on how gender roles affect performance
of girls/women education. The paper set out to examine whether inequality in gender
roles affect women s education, find out types of domestic chores that women normally
engage with and how they affect their academic progress and assess whether women
have assistance in performing domestic chores or not. The study was carried out at The
Open University of Tanzania, Tanga Regional center. Fifty-one (51) Female students
pursuing Diploma in Primary Teacher Education were involved. Questionnaire survey
and documentary review methods were employed in data collection. A quantitative
data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 20 th version).
While qualitative information was analyzed using content analysis. The study observed
that majority of the respondents (71%) agreed that inequality in division of household
roles affect their academic carriers. Food preparation, washing clothes, house cleanness
and family care mentioned as the main domestic chores that attribute to poor academic
progress among DPTE female students at the OUT. The study concludes that division of
household roles should be restructured so as to refrain women from domestic chores
that constraints their participation in education.
Keywords: open and distance learning, inequality in gender roles, impact of gender
roles to women education
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved 134
Published by Open Access Publishing Group ©2015.
Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
1. Introduction
Gender roles are social constructed, which implies that each society allocates roles to
girls and boys, men and women according to what the society considers appropriate
(Thobejane and Khoza, 2014). There has been significant variation in gender roles over
culturally and historically contingent (Ibd). The day-to-day lives of women around the
world share one important characteristic: unpaid care work is seen as a female
responsibility, women across different regions, socio-economic classes and cultures
spend an important part of their day on meeting the expectations of their domestic and
reproductive roles (OECD, 2014). On average, women worldwide spend more than
double the amount of time on domestic work than men. When counting both paid and
unpaid work, women work more total hours per day than men (UNSTATS, 2010, cited
in Meeks, 2012).
In Europe, the new family trends and patterns have been paralleled by changes
in gender roles, especially an expansion of the female role to include economic
provision for a family, and lately also transformation of the male role with more intense
involvement in family responsibilities, especially care for children (Olah et al, 2014).
However, women spend more time for housework than their partners. On average, in
Nordic countries, the difference between women and men is about few hours a week,
provided that they are the most egalitarian. In Ireland, Portugal, Spain, and Greece, the
wives do around 20 hours more housework than men (Malina et al, 2008). Thus, women
are often faced with a double shift , performing both productive and reproductive
work. Women in paid employment typically take on the main responsibilities in the
home and continue to bear the biggest burden of domestic work, childcare
responsibilities, and care for older, disabled or sick family members (ibd).
In United States as Europe there is also a shift in gender roles pattern, most men
have egalitarian attitudes regarding household labor division hence they engage more
in a variety of household tasks and they are more likely to be involved in cooking and
laundry if their wives contribute more to total income (Calasanti and Bailey, 2008).
Contrary to western European and American societies where there is change in gender
roles perspectives, gender disparity in household division of labor is still very high in
developing countries. When considering the size of the housework load the women of
less developed societies tend to spend more time on housework, than women in
western and northern European societies where housework performed by both
husband and wife (Malina et al, 2008).
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Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
Yu and Xie, (2012) report large gender gaps in household work in contemporary
China, with the lion s share falling on the shoulders of the wife rather than the husband.
It is quite possible that this traditional division of labor in the household, with women
being mainly responsible for caring of children and the household to impede realization
of women s full potential in the labor market ibid . In Pakistan, gender roles are
constructed in a combination of traditional roots and social values, primarily based on
the concepts of production and reproduction, taken to mirror masculine and feminine
traits of an individual (Mahsud et al, 2014). Thus, most women are confined to their
homes to do housework for the extended family and are excluded from main decision
making (Ibd).
In South Africa, women perform the vast majority of unpaid reproductive labor
as necessary work to maintain society and reproduce future generations. This includes
childcare, home-based health care, informal education, household production/
maintenance, and taking care of the sick / elderly (Liesls and Meelis, 2014). Traditionally
men in Nigeria do not participate in domestic work including child rearing – such tasks
are considered to be the exclusive domain of women (Asiyanbola, 2005). Women
oversee the domestic chores: they kept houses, processed and cooked all foods,
responsible for the bearing and rearing of children from birth on; men were only called
upon to assist when extraordinary discipline was considered necessary especially for
the boys (Aweda, 1984:184) cited in Asiyanbola, (2005).
Feinstein et al, (2010), posts that more women in Tanzania are increasingly
receiving higher education and getting jobs outside of the house, but they are still
expected to take care of the household responsibilities, which further increase the
amount of work women do in comparison to men. In addition to that, Tanzanian
women desire egalitarian households but men are not ready to allow those changes in
their families because of the prevailing patriarchal ways of life. Thus, the paper set out
to examine the impact of domestic roles in women education at the OUT, assess the
types of domestic s chores that affect women s education, find out the measures that
could be adopted in achieving gender parity in household division of labor.
2. Review of Related Literature
2.1 Definition of key terms and concept
a) Gender roles
Gender roles are the roles that men and women expected to occupy based on their sex
(Blackstone, 2003 in Hajanalka, 2014). They are expectation regarding proper behavior,
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Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
attitudes and activities of males and female. Gender roles are socially constructed,
which implies that each society allocates roles to girls and boys, men and women
according to what the society considers appropriate (Thobejane and Khoza, 2014).
b) Gender Socialization
Socialization is a process through which the child becomes an individual respecting his
or her environment laws and customs (Vuorinen and Tuunala, 1997) cited in (Crespi
2003). Gender socialization refers to the way in which girls and boys learn how to act,
how to behave into society where raised (UNICEF, 2007). It is a process by which
people learn to behave in a certain way as detected by societal believes, values, attitudes
and examples (ibid). It is a more focused form of socialization whereby children of
different sex are socialized into their gender roles (Hajanalka, 2014). Girls and boys do
not wait to have gender norms imposed on them but throughout childhood, they
actively incorporate gender images into their fantasy, games and forms of social
interactions (UN, 2008). Boys as well as girls practice, use and reflect on gender,
sometimes dividing along gender lines and sometimes crossing gender boundaries
(Ibd).
Gender socialization for girls involves different physical activities related to care
and household keeping while boys involved in outdoor activities (UNESCO, 2007).
Girls were socialized at an early age into their future prescribed gender roles as mothers
by learning to tend to do domestic chores while boys were exempted from performing
the said activities (Njie, 2013). Gender socialization identified the following domestic
roles for girls: cleaning dishes washing laundry, taking care of their young kids and
cooking meals while boys were excluded from performing roles related to nurturing
and care responsibilities (Njie et al, 2015). Gender socialization is at times regarded
simplistically as a one-way process of providing young men with their gender identity
and the norms by which they should live. Research reveals, however, that gender
learning is a highly active process in which both boys and girls seek and process
cultural information about gender and gender equality (UN, 2008). Gender roles are
learned through agencies of gender socialization that includes: family, peer groups,
school and media. Family is very powerful agent of gender socialization in which
parent s day to day social economic activities influenced their children and encourages
them to engage in sex related roles (Crespi, 2003).
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Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
c) Gender Socialization Theory
The social construction of gender approach assumes that early socialization and
Intergenerational influences are important for the gendered division of housework
(Cunningham 2001). Several theories have been attempted to explain gender
socialization that manifest itself in inequality gender roles. Social Learning Theory
insists on the importance of Reinforcement for change of behavior. Children are
reinforced either positively or negatively to encourage or discourage certain behavior
(Burn, 1996; Wharto, 2005). Children learn by observing and imitating the behavior of
the adult of the same sex adults (Research Starters, 2009).
Structural Functionalist on the other hand believes on natural division of labor,
women are the one who give birth and nurse the children, thus they should be involved
in domestic activities such as preparing meals for the family and maintaining home
(Reeves and Baden, 2000). Women are generally expected to fulfill reproductive roles of
bearing and raising children, caring for other family members and household
management tasks while men tend to be associated with productive roles particularly
paid work (ibd). Traditionally, men are supposed to earn a living to support their
families while women belong at home cooking, cleaning and caring for children
(Crespi, 2003).
2.2 Empirical review
Women and girls’ education
Globally, education is regarded as the key factor in overcoming the barriers that women face
in enhancement of assets and capabilities of diverse their lives (UNICEF, 2004). The
empowering role of women s education affects not only the lives of the women, but also
the lives of their children and other dependents such as the aged (Gaba, 2007). Women
education can enhance their individuals and groups to engage, influence and hold
empowerment level to bring a positive social change and raising their status in the
family and society (Mahsud et al, 2014). Worldwide commitment to gender equality in
education was reflected in Dakar Framework of Action on Education for All (EFA) 2000
and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs 2000). The two frameworks under their
gender and educational specific related goals insisted on elimination of gender
disparities in all levels of education by 2015.
Despite, all these efforts gender disparity in education persist in most developing
countries. Women/girls continue to be disadvantaged in education at all levels in sub-
Saharan Africa, Middle East/North Africa and South Asia. Even where enrolment of
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Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
girls/women in different levels of education has increased, positive outcomes are not
guaranteed (UNICEF, 2004).
In Sub-Saharan Africa, there is low enrolments rates and strong gender
disparities/ inequalities where access to secondary and tertiary education is still limited
to a minority and half of the countries show gross enrolment rates of no more than 26%
for secondary and 2.5% for tertiary (UNESCO, 2004). In tertiary education, girls/women
are not only much less represented (fewer than 5 girls/women to 10 boys/men) but often
confined to be in a so-called feminine fields, such as social sciences, humanities,
services and health-related courses, that do not boost their chances of equal job
opportunities with men (Ibid). Gender disparities in education performance and
completion rates persist in many African countries where more girls than boys found to
repeat classes or drop out of school in primary and secondary levels while in colleges
and university the rate of supplementary, repeat and even discontinuous cases is higher
among female students as compared to male students (Johannes,2010). Statistic shows
that women and girls from nine out of ten poorest Countries in the world have not
complete school (UNESCO, 2013). Majority of regions have reached gender parity in
primary education, but disparities persist in secondary levels of education (Ibd). Access
to higher education remains a problem for women in many developing countries than
in developed countries. In more developed regions, women have fairly equal access to
higher education where they comprise 52/% of tertiary students (UNESCO, 2002). In
less developed regions the percentage of women in tertiary education vary from one
country to another: China (33%), Latin America (49%), India (38%), Sri lank (41%),
Malawi (30%), Uganda (32%), Zimbabwe (29%) and Tanzania (36%) (Ibid).
Gender equality in higher and technical education is a serious constraint in
Tanzania more so in science and technology related academic programmes (World
Bank, 2004). However, there is slightly growth whereas the percentage of women
students in higher education grown from 7.5% (2003) to 23% in 2006 (Ibid). The rate of
female student s enrollment increased up to . % in / and projected to reach
50% by the year 2020 (Tanzania Commission of University – TCU Rolling Strategic Plan
2016/17 – 2020/21).
2.3 Women/girls Education and Gender Roles
Women and Education is said to be a vehicle that break the shackles of poverty thereby
leading to transformation, development and progress (Ikoni, 2009). With the 2005
MDGs first deadline for attainment of gender parity in primary and secondary schools
enrolment already missed, the ability of women and girls to empower themselves
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INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
economically and socially by going to school, or by engaging in productive and civic
activities is still being constrained by their responsibility for everyday tasks in the
household division of labor (CEC Report 2007).
Though many governments in Africa are committed in providing equal
education opportunities for girls/women following various gender equality
frameworks, in practice the rate of school dropout among the girl is very high as
compared to boys (ADB, 2010). The obstacles to gender parity in education are many
despite the tremendous effort made over the last 10 years. Gender division of labor
allocation and control over resources and male dominant patriarchal orders are among
the factors that hinder female participation in education in Africa (Mbilinyi, 1990).
Inequality in gender roles for example was pointed out to be the main challenge facing
women/girl s education in developing countries Sub Saharan Africa in particular
(Meena,1996, Mbilinyi, 1990). Traditionally, labor division for women/girls allocated
household roles related to kitchen and care giving to the family members (King and
Winthrop, 2015). Women /girls are usually expected to be fully engaged in domestic
works including food preparation, collecting water/fuelwood and cleaning compound
yards, look after young siblings and other care activities which may or may not be
flexible enough to allow them participate fully in education (Ibd). Thus, educational
dreams of women and girls are being jeopardized by the amount of time and energy
required to meet their intense family responsibilities (Njie, 2015). The pressure of
domestic work both constraints women/girls access to education and their ability to
participate in education when they have been enrolled (Kabeer, 2003). The situation in
family where women are employed in the public sector is even more difficulty as office
works coupled with domestic chores constrain time for study (Ibd). Cross (1981),
observed that job and home responsibilities consume time for study.
Taplin (2000) cited in Gaba, 2007, found that the female students at Indira
Gandhi National Open University of India (IGNOU) reported severe bottlenecks in
pursuing their studies due to their social commitments and a similar finding was visible
through their academic results. Report by Our Africa Women , show that care of
children, sick/ elderly people with poor childcare facilities and support services take up
a lot of women s time and hence deprive time for other valuable activities including
concentration for their studies. Similarly, Girl s work burden become heavier in the
absence of their mother due to employment that push significant care and household
work onto children particularly girls who fail to concentrate on their normal study after
school hours (Njie, 2015).
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Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
2.4 Open and Distance Learning in promoting women education
The global education agenda has raised awareness for the support of gender parity and
gender equality in education as the Human Development report for 1995 declares that
If human development is not engendered, it is endangered’. Development goals now focus
on gender equality and women empowerment. Goal number three of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), was to promote gender equality and women
empowerment. The fourth target of this goal was to eliminate gender disparity in
primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005 and at all levels of education by
2015, (UNESCO Global Monitoring Report, 2005). Therefore, the shift in the
international education goals beyond gender parity to gender equality has had a
positive influence in promoting a meaningful education agenda towards the education
of females in relation to males.
Achieving gender equality in education implies equality of opportunities for
males in relation to females, equality in the learning process, equality of outcomes as
well as equality of external results after leaving education, (UNESCO, 2004). As mode
of study, Open and Distance Learning found to boost women education because it
provides flexibility in time management possibilities while preventing classroom
attendance (Kwapong, 2007) cited in Njaya 2015. The ODL mode has enhanced
enrolment of thousands of women both from rural and urban areas (Vidanapathirana,
2011) cited in (Mbwete, 2013).
Statistics show that the percentage of female students in Open University of
India (IGNOU) was 76% as compared to male students 24% in 2005 (Gaba, 2007).
Records from the Distance Learning Institute of the University of Lagos in Nigeria
indicates that, in 2001, about 2874 female students enrolled in Administration Degrees
and 164 female students enrolled in science Degrees (Temitayo, 2012). Chabaya and
Gudhlanga, (2013) shows that there is quite a fair percentage of women participating in
university education in Zimbabwe, whereas the Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU)
alone enrolled about 8,485 female students. The number of female students enrolled in
University of South Africa (UNISA) has almost doubled that of male in 2014/15 where
female students were 215,669 as compared to 121,943 males. (Unisa Annual Report,
2015)
According to The Open University of Tanzania Facts and Figures published in
June 2006, the total number of undergraduate students admitted annually has increased
from 1209 in the year 2001 to 2692 in 2005. The percentage of female students has also
increased on average from 18.6 in 2001 to 26.6 percent in 2005. Likewise, the number of
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Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
female enrolled into DPTE program continues to increase for three years consecutively
from the average of 51% in 2011/2012 to 52% in 2013/2014 (OUT Facts and Figures
2014/2015).
3. Methodology
3.1 Study design
The study used case study research design. Miles and Huberman (1994) define a case
study as the investigation of a phenomenon occurring within a specific context.
Furthermore, Gall & Borg (2007), Case study has been chosen so as to save time and
obtain in depth information about the challenges of domestic roles toward DPTE female
students education carriers. Both qualitative and quantitative research approach were
used.
3.2 Study area
The study was conducted in Tanga Regional Center at the Open University of Tanzania.
The center has been chosen because of the researcher s familiarity and the accessibility
of the respondents.
3.3 Study population
Population is defined as the total number of subjects or the total elements of interest to
researcher (Kothari, 2004). In this study, the target population was DPTE female
students from Tanga Regional Center. The choice of the group was due to the fact that
DPTE program provide female primary school teachers with opportunity to develop
their carrier while attending family responsibilities.
3.4 Sample size and sampling procedures
Sample size refers to the number of items to be included in the sample. Patton (2002)
argues that sample size selection is influenced by the time and resources available for
collection of data in a particular research study. To achieve this goal and compromise
with the time, in this study data were collected from the sample of 51 DPTE female
students so as to capture information on how inequality in gender roles affect female
students at The Open University of Tanzania. Then, simple random sampling
procedure was used in selecting the required number of DPTE female students both
first and second year from Tanga Regional Center.
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 11 │ 2016 142
Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
3.5 Data collection methods
In this paper, survey and documentary review methods were used in data collection.
For example, survey method was used to obtain data related to the inequality in
division of household roles that affect DPTE female students education progress. Data
obtained through questionnaire survey was analyzed quantitatively.
4. Results and Discussion
The findings of the study on how inequality in gender roles affects academic progress
of DPTE female students were discussed as follows:
4.1 Domestic roles and women education
The respondents were asked whether domestic chores have any impact on their study.
The findings indicated that, 71% of respondents agreed that domestic chores have
impact on their study compared to 29% who disagree (Figure: 1). Kabeer, (2003),
reported that pressure of domestic work both constraints women access to education
and their ability to participate in education when they have been enrolled. The study by
Nyaruwata, (2014) observed the same in Zimbabwe whereas 84% of respondents
reported that they lack study time for study after working hours due to family
commitments.
No, 15, 29%
Yes, 36, 71%
Figure 1: Domestic echoes
Source: Field data, 2016
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Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
4.2 Types of domestic chores
Respondents were also asked to mention types of domestic chores they perform in their
respective home. Food preparation, washing clothes, house cleanness, family care and
gardening were mentioned as main household works (Figure 2). This was equally
observed by Njie, (2013) in Gambia, whereas 96.6% of the respondents agreed that they
have domestic chores to perform at home, the chores including: washing dishes,
cleaning the house, sweeping compound yards, taking care of children/young siblings
and shopping.
24.8%
25.0% 21.9%
20.0%
20.0% 18.1%
15.0%
8.6%
10.0% 6.7%
5.0%
0.0%
Figure 2: Types of domestic echoes
Source: Field data, 2016
4.3 Assistance from housemaid
The respondents were further probed whether they have housemaid to assist them in
domestic chores. During survey, the study findings revealed that, 80.4% of respondents
have no housemaid (house girl or houseboy) who can assist them in domestic chores
(Figure 3). The respondents claimed that situation become worse in the absence of
housemaid as they become fully engaged in multiple domestic roles coupled with office
duties and responsibilities.
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Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
100% 19.6 80.4
90%
80%
70%
60%
50% Percent
40% Frequency
10 41
30%
20%
10%
0% 00
Yes No
Figure 3: Housemaid
Source: Field data, 2016
The respondents were further asked to state the way on how they manage to carry out
the three tasks (office work, family care and study) in absence of housemaid. They
commented that, they efficiently allocate time for each task to be accomplished.
However, most respondents reported that they spend most of time in the office works
that range from 8- 11 hours per day, domestic work ranked the second in terms of time
consumption after office works (2-6 hours) while study hours were found to be very
few as compared to office works and domestic chores; it takes only 2-4 hours in a day
(Table 1). The study by Buber, (2002) observed the same where respondents reported
that women do the lion s share of family work they spend from six up to nearly nine
hours per day on household work while husbands spend only two hours on average.
Equally, the study by Malina et al (2008), in Europe found that women in paid
employment typically take on the main responsibilities in the home and continue to
bear the biggest burden of domestic works and family care despite the fact that men are
increasingly participate in domestic chores. UN, (2008), argued that employed women
are often faced with a double shift , performing both productive and reproductive
works.
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Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
Table 1: Time allocation in various tasks
Task Time used
Time interval Frequency Percentage
Working hours 8-9 44 86.3
10-11 7 13.7
Studying hours 2-3 39 76.5
4-6 12 23.5
Family care 2-4 32 62.7
5-6 19 37.3
Source: Field data, 2016
Assistance from Partners
The respondents were further probed whether they get assistance from their
partners/husband in performing domestic chores. The finding revealed that 62.7% of
the respondents reported that their husband does not assist them in domestic works
despite the fact that they are all employed (Figure 4). Contrary to this finding the study
by Gasper and Klinke, (2009); Calasanti and Bailey (2008) in Europe and United states
of America respectively show that in developed countries men are increasingly assist
their wives in domestic chores.
70 62.7
60
50
37.3
40 32 Frequency
30 Percent
19
20
10
0
Yes No
Figure 4: Assistance from partner
Source: field data, 2016
In addition to that, few respondents (37.3%) who agreed that they get assistance from
their partners were further asked to identify the types of domestic chores which their
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Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
husband are most likely prefer to engage. Surrounding cleanness, animal husbandry
and washing clothes were pointed out as the most common domestic tasks performed
by men when assisting their wives at home (Table 2). Contrary to this finding the study
by Gasper and Klinke, (2009) show that in developed countries men are increasingly
assist their wives in childcare and cooking. In most cases, childcare tasks are shared to a
greater extent by both partners. Cooking has been said to be increasingly an area of
convergence between husbands and wives, more men increasingly found to be
involved in the kitchen preparing family meals while women doing other tasks that are
more physically demanding, such as home cleaning or doing the laundry and ironing
(Gasper and Klinke, 2009).
Table 1: Types of domestic echoes performed by partner
Variables Responses
Frequency Percentage
Surrounding cleanliness 13 20.3
Animal husbandry 16 25.0
Family income 22 34.4
Washing clothes 09 14.1
Food preparation 04 6.3
Total 64 100
Source: Field data, 2016
4.4 The extent on how domestic chores affecting academic carrier among DPTE
female students
The respondents were asked to state how family care and domestic chores affect their
academic carrier. The study finding revealed that 54% of the respondents claimed that
multiple domestic chores affect their academic progress. In absence of housemaid and
little or no assistance from partners/husband they become fully engaged in multiple
domestic chores after office works and hence be tired and exhausted to the extent that
they fail to concentrate to their study even for an hour (Figure 5). Musingafi et al (2015),
observed the same in Zimbabwe in which, 75% female students studying at the Open
University of Zimbabwe agreed that lack of sufficient time for study and conflicts
between work schedule were challenge to their study. Similarly, Dodo (2013) shows
that most of female students pursue their studies through Virtual or Open and Distance
Learning in Zimbabwe were facing social problems related to their responsibilities in
nursing ill people and general care of their family. Various studies on women education
observed the same that domestic chores negatively affect academic progress of
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INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
girls/women to the extent that they get tired and unable to read and concentrate in class
(Cross ,1981; Meena, 1996; Njie, 2013).
3; 4%
10; 14%
Shortage of study time
Multiple domestic chores
38; 54% Tired and exhausted
Others
20; 28%
Figure 5: Effects of domestic chores on academic progress of the respondents
Source: Field data, 2016
5. Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
ODL is very important tool in promoting gender equality in education for
disadvantaged group of people including women. It provides an opportunity to them
to realize their educational goals while attending other socio economic responsibilities
for the well-being of their family and society in general.
The study found that inequality in gender roles is a major challenge facing
female students pursuing Diploma in Primary Teachers Education offered at The Open
University of Tanzania. Overburden of women in domestic chores found to constrain
women s studies both in terms of energy and time consumption. To realize potential of
ODL in promoting women s education and empowerment, the study recommends on
restructuring of traditional gender roles so that men can participate fully in household
roles as women in Tanzania are increasingly engaged in paid work to promote family s
income. Thus, more work is still needed to be done on how gender parity in domestic
roles can be achieved among African societies as European societies do.
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 11 │ 2016 148
Rahma M. Msoffe -
INEQUALITY IN GENDER ROLES, A CHALLENGE TO OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING:
A CASE OF FEMALE STUDENTS IN DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION –
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
5.2 Recommendation
The study on inequality in gender roles and its effects to DPTE female students
recommends the followings.
1. The Government should support women studies through providing them with
full study leave so as to release them from office duties and hence increase study
hours.
2. The government should consider reducing working hours from eight to six for
employee who study through ODL.
3. The Government officials should allow their employee who studying through
ODL to attend different academic activities related to their studies when
requested.
4. The Community should support women who study through ODL by releasing
them from unnecessary community issues except the basic socio- economic ones.
5. The Family members should assist women who pursue their studies through
ODL in household chores. It can be achieved if husband /partners could have
positive outlook toward women s education.
6. The Family members should also be tolerant when women failed to fulfill normal
responsibilities due to limited time. This can be achieved if there will be a clear
understanding about the value of women education to the whole family.
7. The family member should consider restructuring domestic chores allocation to
provide ample time for women to concentrate on her study. It can be achieved if
partners/husband change his mind set in relation to persisting traditional gender
roles that allocate most of domestic works to women.
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THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
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