European Journal of Education Studies
ISSN: 2501 - 1111
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1111
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
10.5281/zenodo.61580
Volume 2│Issue 4│2016
THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN
NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A CASE STUDY OF
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe1, Koketso Jeremiah2i
1,2
Department of Languages and Social Sciences Education,
University of Botswana, Botswana
Abstract:
Traditional knowledge on local biodiversity has sustained traditional economies for
centuries across the world. While it is threatened by modern ecological knowledge, it
remains very important in some regions, especially among poor communities in both
less developed and industrialized nations. Among such communities, it is valued and
treasured at varying extent throughout the year. In other communities, it is valued and
utilized in seasonal livelihoods. It is therefore, treasured and passed from one
generation to the next. In some cases, it almost competes with modern technological or
scientific knowledge on the use and management of biodiversity. This case study is
based on a research conducted in the Eastern part of Botswana among 14 villages where
knowledge of species of edible and medicinal plants remains relevant. The researchers
used observations, individual interviews and focus group discussions to generate data
over a period of twenty months. It became apparent that local ecological knowledge is
still valued, especially by poor people, who use it to enhance their wellbeing and to
protect biodiversity. Some respondents said they value it since they are beneficiaries of
those who possess it since they need and utilize the products sold by those who still
have a wealth of knowledge of local biodiversity. Other respondents felt it (local
knowledge) was as valuable as modern scientific knowledge and suggested that it
should be legislated and taught in schools as it is slowly eroded or disappearing. This
paper recommends the sustenance of the existing traditional ecological knowledge
(TEK) while reconstructing it in preparation for curriculum development. The paper
recommends that further research be carried out to document the type or nature of
people who are TEK holders, the methods they use to manage and utilize local
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved
Published by Open Access Publishing Group ©2015.
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
biodiversity products, the extent of success of their practices, up-to-date contacts of
these people (communication channels) and suggest a policy to develop enabling social
and economic conditions within which TEK practitioners work.
Keywords: traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), biodiversity, natural resources
management, Botswana
Introduction
For the purpose of consistency in this paper, the authors will stick to the use of the
concept traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) despite the fact that indigenous
knowledge IK is variably termed
Shava, 2013: 384). This paper offers a representation
of traditional ways of knowing and doing things based on local peoples experiences
over generations as they continuously interact with the natural environment around
them. To a large extent the knowledge of edible and medicinal plants accumulated and
informally validated over a period of time has become part of their cultural practices.
TEK is being continuously eroded due to its openness to the introduction of modern
scientific knowledge. It is, however, still practiced in some isolated communities and
households, especially among the poor and less western educated people. As a result of
its openness, TEK is not only vulnerable to external scientific forces, but it has also
become a dynamic system offering opportunities for recreation in different contexts.
The research was conducted in an area that is inhabited by pre-dominantly
people of Pedi ethnic group with related traditional knowledge of biodiversity and
plant uses. Although there is remarkable development in terms of modern schooling,
agricultural practices and cultural diversity, people still make use of their traditional
knowledge where and when necessary. This paper recognizes the value of traditional
ecological knowledge and argues for its integration into the education system for the
benefit of local communities and to some extent to humanity at large through
traditional sustenance of biodiversity.
Statement of the Problem
To avoid losing TEK as a cultural heritage (As stated by Gapor, Daud, Said and
Krishnan, 2013, page 58; see end of Literature Review section), the younger generations
need to be included in the dissemination programme. The TEK discourse has to be
taken to all sectors for interrogation and recreation. The modernist tradition
asymmetrically views TEK as knowledge to be
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 4 │ 2016
validated with the logical positivist
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
epistemology of scientific institutions
Payyappallimana, Fadeeva and O Donoghue,
. These authors claim that modernization has devalued TEK by
universalizing
abstract norms of action, valuing along with individualized pattern of socialization
While subscribing to Couze and Featherstone
:
:
ibid.p
.
the notion that older
knowledge may be readmitted but subject to the critical and skeptical judgment of a
rational method, uncluttered by faith and dogmas the researchers feel that TEK should
not be devalued for the sake of modernization. As a result of its contribution to the
well-being of the communities cherishing it and for economic growth, TEK has to be
given prominence where and when applicable. TEK on indigenous food/fruit trees may
be of significance in restoring biodiversity based food production and health in
communities. The problem of dwindling TEK among communities is accelerated by the
introduction of modern scientific knowledge. The purpose of the investigation for this
paper was to establish the importance of TEK in the research site. The following
research question assisted in the achievement of the research goal.
Research Questions
The focus of the research for this paper aimed at answering the following specific
questions:
1. What traditional ecological knowledge exists in the study area?
2. What are the traditional uses of plants that are found in the study area?
3. Is modern scientific knowledge a threat to traditional ecological knowledge systems?
The answers to these questions offered insights for national policy makers and
donor agencies charged with designing programmes to promote and protect TEK
systems in Botswana.
Literature Review
The recognition of the value of TEK is historical, dating back from the UN international
conventions on indigenous people and their knowledge to the global proliferations of
IK literature Shava
. This paper s main thrust is in the practice of TEK in the
research sites, and therefore, it will not have space for the evolution of IK systems
nationally and internationally or globally. However, mention deserves to be made that
due to the introduction of modern scientific knowledge through western education
systems, TEK is faced with a formidable force of validated knowledge offered through
formal systems. In addition, there has also been the introduction of foreign religions,
Christianity in particular, accompanying formal education. Religion discourages the use
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
of traditional medicine and this invariably leads to the decline in TEK related to flora
and its medicinal uses. A shift in this direction was also influenced by political
development when states such as Botswana became independent and joined the UN.
Biodiversity conservation discourses around the world, especially in the 1980s,
influenced TEK through biodiversity conservation management systems. The UNCED
(1992), through Principle 22, confirmed the recognition of TEK and indigenous people.
Local people have accumulated knowledge that could be verified by modern
scientific knowledge systems as valuable inventions for development. The potential of
traditional herbal plants for economic gain has necessitated the conservation of
biodiversity throughout the world. Botswana is in the process of developing a specific
policy on its indigenous knowledge system. It has isolated policies on natural resources,
such as the National Policy on Natural Resource Conservation and Development of
1991 and the National Policy on Culture of 2001 that are related to international policy
frameworks including the Nagoya Protocol, an international agreement to combat biopiracy and share benefits from national resources research fairly. A specific law on IK
would help Botswana to protect, preserve and mainstream TEK into its formal
education system and economy.
Traditional knowledge is claimed to be eroding at an alarming rate in some fast
developing and developed regions with higher GDP (Payyappallimana, Fadeeva and
O Odonoghue,
. Interestingly, areas experiencing loss of biodiversity are also
experiencing loss of traditional knowledge on biodiversity.
Compounding loss of biodiversity and traditional knowledge is that there is lack
of clear policies and approaches promoting governance to protect and value traditional
knowledge. However, it should be noted and appreciated that sustainable development
and education for sustainable development are making TEK one of the priority areas in
the agendas of governments.
Payyappallimana, Fadeeva and O Donoghue
:
noted that
The World
Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that traditional medical practices cater for a major
percentage (in some regions up to 70-80% of the world population’s health requirements
especially in developing countries WHO 2008 . They continue to say
Upholding and
revitalizing such knowledge is seen as an important mechanism for affirming identity and social
cohesion and has a vital role in local livelihoods and socioeconomic and cultural systems . ibid .
Payyappallimana, Fadeeva and O Donoghue
:
posit that
Traditional uses of
plants by indigenous communities were noted and documented for commercial exploitation,
most often without references to the communities that were custodians of that knowledge . TEK
has rich local socio-ecological knowledge that protects biodiversity and does not require
external expertise or specialists to teach them (locals) conservation practices. This
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
conclusion is supported by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) that calls for
the need to … respect, preserve and maintain traditional cultures; encourage customary
custodial use of biological resources in line with principles of sustainable use and conservation;
and ensure equitable sharing of benefits among holders while accessing biological resources and
related knowledge in line with national legislation
O Odonoghue,
:
Payyappallimana, Fadeeva and
.
TEK protection is gaining ground in the contemporary intellectual property
rights discourses. Payyappallimana, Fadeeva and O Donoghue
:
posit that:
“The discourse has been centered on the protection of intellectual property rights, often
overlooking and neglecting a need to consider and strengthen the social and cultural processes of
continuity and contemporary utility around such knowledge. Whereas the documentation and
preservation of traditional knowledge (which are at the verge of extinction with the receding of
language diversity) are needs of the hour, the promotion of contemporarily relevant traditional
knowledge and encouraging continued creativity and dynamism are vital.
The above view illustrates the dire need for Batswana and other nations that still
respect their culture and TEK to move from rhetoric to action in their policy
implementation. The effort to protect TEK could add further impetus to a contested
idea that promotions of TEK in certain sections of society where modern science and
technology benefits are not yet available or accessible creates double standards within a
society and further deepens inequity in less developed countries (Payyappallimana,
Fadeeva and O Odonoghue,
. TEK could be integrated into younger generation
educational programmes as a protection strategy:
…traditional knowledge on herbal
medicine has diminished and is only guarded by aging healers. Dissemination of knowledge to
the younger generation is not common, to the point of being almost non-existent. Thus, there is a
danger of losing this important cultural heritage forever if it is not documented. (Gapor,
Daud, Said and Krishnan, 2013: 58).
Materials and Methods
The research methods used were based on the qualitative research paradigm as the data
anticipated was largely qualitative in nature. To address the research questions the
researcher documented and analyzed oral evidence from the respondents regarding
knowledge and use of herbal and medicinal plants in the region. A total of thirty (30)
semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with various respondents in
order to expand upon the issues raised during focus group discussions. Three hundred
(300) respondents were targeted and about eighty percent (80%) return rate was
achieved as 239 respondents responded to interviews, focus group discussions and
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
observation. Questions were drafted based on the issues raised during the desk study
and focus group discussions. The research questions were mainly descriptive to enable
participants to talk about the social scenes they were familiar with, and structured to
enable respondents to demonstrate how they organize their life experiences (Chilisa,
2012). The above types of questions were applied in interviews, observations and
focused group discussions conducted during the data generation process. The
researchers avoided the use of questionnaires as the majority of the respondents were
either semi-literate or illiterate.
Interviews
The researchers used non-standardized or unstructured interviews to allow flexibility
and probing informed by what the respondents said. The respondents were adults,
mainly women. In Botswana culture, like in most African cultures, women often collect
or gather wild edible and medicinal plants. The majority of the women were either
semi-literate or illiterate. However, in terms of local knowledge they were
knowledgeable. As Chilisa (2012) has noted, those respondents possess valuable
wisdom and traditions which constitute the core, if not, essence, of traditional ecological
knowledge (TEK). From this perspective, the theory of knowledge and questions about
knowledge can be found in the wisdom and beliefs of wise elders of the communities,
who have not been schooled in the formal education system (Kaphagawani and
Malherbe, 2000). Adult women were interviewed as they are believed to have acquired
traditional ecological knowledge from their elders through social interaction as they
grew up and hence they were in a better position to make intellectual contribution to
indigenous knowledge recreation and scholarship.
Focus group discussions
The discussions were stimulated by semi structured questions that led to some probing
of the responses. Focus group discussions were conducted among groups of five (5) to
seven (7) members. Focus group members were part of those who were interviewed as
individuals. The small numbers of people in a group allowed the respondents to give
more realistic perceptions of issues on TEK (Chilisa, 2012). This is how Chilisa (2012:
212) describes this approach:
Members within the group can, for example, challenge participants with extreme
views, and thus, more realistic information is obtained on issues. Information is also
checked for accuracy as members question, complement, and corroborate what others
say. In addition, the researcher can cover a wide range of issues. However, it became
clear during focus group discussions that some respondents were more assertive than
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
others. To avoid the more assertive respondents dominating the discussions, individual
group members were given the opportunity to contribute to the discussions
uninterrupted. This approach provided the individual with the opportunity to be
heard.
Observations
The researchers had the opportunity to observe the respondents on several occasions
collecting wild herbs for processing. The respondents identified the herbal plant,
carefully harvested parts of it and explained to the researchers how they identified it
and why they harvested it in the manner they did. In this manner the researchers were
able to experience the respondents thoughts and actions in an unstructured manner.
The researchers recorded field notes while visiting each group and individuals in the
villages and outside the villages where they identified and obtained some of the plants
used as either food or herbs (or medicine). The field notes recorded were rough
narratives and descriptions, detailing
observation was made
when, where, and under what conditions the
Wiersma and Jurs, 2005: 54). These notes were synthesized and
summarized for analysis. Observations were also complemented by interviews to
understand the processes as demonstrated by the respondents. Since our research was
not purely ethnographic, the researchers observations were done only when and where
the respondents were either found collecting the wild products from the field or when
they were found processing them at either their homes or small factory belonging to the
community trust. Although this approach was unstructured, it enabled the researchers
to observe what was taking place before deciding on its significance for the research.
The researchers were able to understand the context of TEK in natural resources
management, and to be inductive and see things that might not otherwise be
unconsciously missed (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2007).
Data collected through the above mentioned techniques was analyzed for the
purpose and process of reporting. The techniques used assisted in triangulating the
information obtained. Triangulation confirmed validation and corroboration of
information obtained from this research. This approach assisted the researchers to draw
sound conclusions from the findings. The challenge with observations was that the
researchers never knew when people would be out looking for wild products or plants
for use as it was only done where and when necessary. The same applied to processing
the products that was done whenever there was demand for items or products. This
forced the researchers to be frequenting research sites and maintaining contacts with
key informants as well as the community trust leaders to knew when activities were
likely to be carried out.
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
Document analysis
To a limited extend, data was generated through some general review of literature on
TEK and related documentation. The documents reviewed included policy documents,
previous research on TEK in Africa and internationally as well as reproduced material
and information documents on IK systems. This assisted the researchers to reconstruct
and document TEK in the research sites. Finally, document analysis helped the
researchers to place their research in context as they learnt from earlier endeavors
(Cohen, Manion, Morrison, 2005).
Data Analysis (Presentation) and Discussion of Findings
The findings discussed in this article are drawn from the data obtained through
interviews, focus group discussions, observation and document analysis. The research
was conducted in 14 villages in the central-eastern part of Botswana. The respondents
identified the following food and herbal plants:
morula (sclerocarya birrea), mosata
(orthanthera Jasminiflora), galalatshwene (myrotha mnus) , motlopi (boscia albitrunca),
mmopudu (mimusops zyheri) mogorogorwana (strychyons scocculoides), mmilo(vangueria
infausta), and megwana (griwa species), mosukujane (lippia scaberrima), and monepenepe
(cassia abbreviata), respectively. The most popular food and herbal plants among these
are found on Table 1. Table 1 also shows the distribution of these plants in different
villages in the area under study.
Table 1: The most popular plant resources and their distribution among villages
in the study area
Villages/
natural
resources
Morula
(sclerocaryabirrea)
Tumasera
Sefhare
Goo Tau
Malaka
Chadibe
Lecheng
Lerala
Ramokgonami
Matlolwane
Maunatlala
Mokokwana
Lesenepole
Mosweu
Seolwane
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
X
X
x
x
x
x
x
Mosata
(orthanthera
Jasminiflora)
x
x
x
x
x
Galalatshwene
(myrothamnus)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Monepenepe
(cassia
abbreviata
Motlopi
(Boscia
albitrunca)
Mmopudu
(mimusops
zyheri)
x
x
x
x
x
X
x
x
x
x
x
X
X
X
X
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 4 │ 2016
x
x
x
x
x
x
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
Table 1 shows that the most abundant food and herbal plant resources in the area are
the ones that have the most value. They are used domestically and for commercial
purposes. The respondents demonstrated common botanic knowledge by identifying
the plants and determining their local uses. The majority of the respondents (62%) said
that these resources are used for both consumption and for sale after processing. Some
are used for medicinal purposes while others are edible and some are used for both.
Those that are edible include morula (sclerocaryabirrea), mosata(orthanthera Jasminiflora),
motlopi (boscia albitrunca), and mmopudu (mimusops zyheri). People eat fruit from these
plants. Mosata (orthanthera Jasminiflora) fruits are eaten after boiling while the rest of its
fruit is eaten raw. That is, the fruit is either eaten fresh or dried or both. All these
resources are used locally. However, some plants have been commercialized, for
example, morula (sclerocaryabirrea) fruit drink, mosata (orthanthera Jasminiflora) and dried
mmopudu(mimusops zyheri) fruits. However, some of these plants are also used as
medicine for either people or domestic animals. They use their barks, leaves or roots to
treat certain ailments such as stomach ache or fever for humans or infertility in
domestic animals.
The plants that are used for medicinal purposes included Galalatshwene
(myrothamnus) and monepenepe (cassia abbreviata). These plants are used, among others,
for treating high blood pressure and stomach disorders in humans, respectively.
Monepenepe (cassia abbreviata) is used in domestic animals for treating anthrax. Sixty
percent (60%) of the respondents said these herbal plants are sold while only three (3)
said the resources lose value when sold or commercialized. Traditionally, they are
supposed to be administered for free. The results show that the uses of the most
popular plant resources or products have been diversified to meet both subsistence and
commercial needs. Most of the products are sold locally. For instance, morula
(sclerocaryabirrea) fruit drink and kernels as well as mmopudu are sold locally. Some
products such as morula kernel and jam, mosata (orthanthera Jasminiflora) dried fruits,
monepenepe (cassia abbreviata) dried bark and powdered roots and galalatshwene are sold
both locally and in towns and cities in Botswana. Some plants such as motlopi(boscia
albitrunca), mogorogorwana (strychyonsscocculoides), mmilo (vangueria infausta), mosukujane
(lippia scaberrima), and moretologa (sour plum) are not sold even locally but they are just
gathered and eaten free when they are ripe. The researchers were also interested in the
traditional processing knowledge of the respondents.
When describing how these food and herbal plants are processed for use, the
respondents indicated that they know different ways of processing depending on the
use of herbal plant. For instance, when asked about their knowledge on how to process
morula (sclerocaryabirrea), one of the respondents said: I have learnt much on how to
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
make morula traditional drink, I remove the nuts and juice into bowl, add water and
steer repeatedly until satisfied that the nuts are completely washed. Then take out the
nuts, squeeze them together to get juice from them. Then pour the juice into a clay pot
overnight. The following day it would have started to fermented [ferment] and sweet to
be taken as traditional morula juice. However, if it is completely fermented to alcoholic
level, then it cannot be taken by children but by elderly people as an alcoholic beverage.
“nother respondent explained that: not any morula fruit is used for making a drink. Some
morula fruits are smelly and sour or bitter and those are not used .
The respondents agreed that morula juice can be taken by children while it is still
sweet. They explained that to make a morula alcoholic drink you ferment it, and keep on
tasting it until it becomes ready. Traditionally, morula drink was just a beverage taken
after meals when people were relaxed and it was not sold. They, however, regretted
that because of the current economic pressures it is now sold locally. The only thing that
they appreciated was that it is still brewed traditionally without adding any chemicals to
speed up the fermentation process . That means: It is still real and tastes good .
The respondents identified a vegetable plant called mosata(orthanthera Jasmini
Flora). Mosata is identified by its leaves which are green when fresh, opposite, simple,
linear-elliptic to narrowly ovate, stiff and leathery, rough to the touch (Hyde, Wursten,
Ballings, and Palgrave, 2015). The fruits exist or appear in paired follicles and distinctly
beaked and are used as a vegetable, or relish in some parts of Botswana. The
respondents explained that the fruits are picked, cooked while still fresh, dried and
packaged and kept in a dry place for use during the dry season, in particular. The
respondents had acquired this knowledge from their elders. They also explained that
traditionally, mosata fruits are not collected when dry, claiming the fruits do cook well
when they are fresh as when they are already dry they do not taste good. The fruits are
allowed to split and drop seeds for the next season. By avoiding over-harvesting of dry
mosata fruit, they also promote conservation of this vegetable plant. Most of the
respondents said that mosata is cooked and dried to make meat, especially biltong-like meat
(i.e. dried meat .
Galalatshwene is a small shrub that grows up to over a meter in height. It is
popularly found in rocky terrain. The stem is normally rigid with many branches and
smelly, that is aromatic. It has green leaves that shrink and appear to be dead during
the dry periods. The flowers are found at the end of the branches between the leaves.
The respondents reported that Galalatshwene (also known as resurrection plant
often
appear dead but when it rains it resurrects almost immediately that is within hours. Every
part of it is used for medicinal purposes. To process it for use, it is often pounded and
sieved to make powder then packaged. Most of the natural products need to be
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
pounded into powder and then packaged. A summary of the six selected food and
herbal plants from the research has been provided in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Summary of popular food and herbal plants and their uses
Item
1
Plant name
Morula
(sclerocarya birrea
or marula)
Identifiable features
Useful parts
Nuts and kernel
Traditional Usesii
Tall tree,
branches,
flaking bark,
ovate leaves,
domestic
fleshy
animals
many
Human and animal
consumption
Peel and juice
grey, rough
compound,
eaten raw
to food,
spherical fruits
adding value
peel fed to
as juice
(green, then
especial for
yellow when
the young
drink
ripe)
as an alcoholic
bark and
leaves used as
medicine for
domestic
animals
2
Mosata
Leaves and bark
(orthanthera Jasmini
Dried fruits
Human consumption
(bilton-like)
as relish
Medicinal value
Flora)
3
Monepenepe
It is a medium sized
Bark, leaves and
(long tail cassia or
tree,
roots
cassia abbreviata)
Medicinal
bark and roots
Dull green
are boiled to
leaves,
be taken for
Long fruits,
high blood
cylindrical
pressure,
pods, and
stomach ache,
with brown to
headache and
grey rough
fever
bark
ii
Although the research respondents claimed the effectiveness of these plants, the researchers have taken note of the fact that unsupervised
use may be harmful. We therefore, confine the information provided by informants as proof of the existence of traditional ecological
knowledge and plants value to the local people.
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
4
Galalatshwene
(myrothamnus
flabellifolius)
Shrub features,
Every part
conical leaves,
Medicinal
powdered,
soft hairy
boiled and
stems during
taken as
rainy season.
medicine to
reduce
tiredness,
high blood
pressure,
headache,
stress, stroke
It is also used
for colds,
respiratory
ailments,
nosebleeds
and fainting.
As tea or spice
can be boiled
and drunk like
tea or added
to food as
5
Motlopi
(boscia albitrunca or
Medium sized tree
shepherd s tree
ever green
hard but
smooth leaves,
spice
Fruits
Human and animal
Leaves
consumption,
and
medicinal
Grey bark,
Round fruits
Roots
Fruits are
edible
Fruits
processed to
produce tasty
juice
Leaves and
roots used for
medicinal
purposes for
both domestic
animals and
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 4 │ 2016
people
Roots can be
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
dried, crushed
and roosted to
make a
substitute for
coffee or
powdered to
make
porridge
during
drought years
6
Mmopudu
(mimusops zyheri)
Tree found in hills,
Fruits
green fruits
when young,
but turning
yellow, then
Human and animal
consumption
Can be eaten
fresh
Can be dried
brown when
and stored in
ripe
a dry place for
future
consumption
It is eaten by
both wild and
domestic
animals.
The source of traditional knowledge on biodiversity
The respondents claimed to have learnt about different plant species in an informal
forum. They were taught by different people including their peers while tendering
livestock or wondering in the bush collecting and gathering wild products or firewood.
Most of the respondents claimed that they were taught the names and uses of different
plant species by their parents. They learnt through socialization as the use of plants for
different purposes is part of their culture. One respondent admitted that no one, was
born with the knowledge about all the plants, we learnt about plants’ uses from childhood .
According to the respondents, traditional ecological knowledge included some
conservation practices that were practiced to avoid depletion of the resources. For
instance, it was taboo to cut down a fruit producing morula tree. This knowledge was
passed from generation to generation. Social learning practices ensured traditional
ecological knowledge passed from generation to generation. Some of the respondents
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 4 │ 2016
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Mphemelang Joseph Ketlhoilwe, Koketso Jeremiah THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A
CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
indicated that they did not remember who exactly taught them the names and uses of
plants as well as how to identify them.
Conclusion
The findings of this study indicate that traditional ecological knowledge is still existing
and important in eastern part of Botswana. However, it is not widely practiced as it was
in the past before the advent of colonialism and its consequent education systems and
religions. Traditional herbal plants are an important source of herbs or medicines
among communities in rural Botswana. There are, however, some individuals who are
known for certain health specialties and are often consulted when the need arises. Some
of these healers provide services at nominal fees as a token of appreciation for the
services. As Gapor, Daud, Said and Krishnan (2013: 60) have noted: Most of the healers
carry the legacy from their family, while several learn from other healers. The roles come with
responsibilities and accountabilities and traditional healers are also subjected to scrutiny by
villagers. Traditional healers are often looked up to by the villagers as contributing to the
wellness of the people in the village, thus they need to maintain their good reputation and image
by observing a good service. They have not been fully integrated into the mainstream health
system. In order to promote their integration, a better understanding of their practices is needed,
and thus more studies need to done.
Based on the research outcome, the researchers are tempted to conclude that
TEK, especially on biodiversity, calls for its protection based on its traditions, quality,
safety, efficacy and its rational uses. To avoid further erosion of traditional knowledge,
it is important to enhance the capacities and capabilities of the local knowledge holders
through training. Training should include discussions on the role of TEK, traditional
healing and edible plants in the modern healthcare system and nutrition and
sustainable development, respectively. The capacity building programme should be
targeted at reviving traditional knowledge. The programme could be multidisciplinary,
that is, it should include biomedical practitioners, policy makers, researchers, education
practitioners, planners, local community leaders and other relevant personnel.
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CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES IN EASTERN PART OF BOTSWANA
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