European Journal of Education Studies
ISSN: 2501 - 1111
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1111
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
Volume 3 │ Issue 12 │ 2017
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1119030
THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS OF
GREECE AND GERMANY IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE:
HOW DO THEY ADDRESS THE ISSUE OF
EDUCATIONAL EQUALITY?
Iakovos Tsiplakidesi
Abstract
The aim of this article is to present an overview and a comparison of the Greek and
German educational systems from an educational and sociological perspective. It
purports to provide a synopsis of the educational systems pointing to areas of
convergence and divergence. It especially emphasizes on two aspects of educational
policy: tracking or ability grouping and the teaching of foreign languages. The choice of
these features was determined by the fact that they are linked to the issue of equality of
educational opportunities and participation in globalized knowledge societies. The
article is organized in the following way. First, it presents the educational system in
Germany. This is followed by a description of the Greek educational system. Finally, we
present a comparison of the educational systems in these two countries, pointing to
areas of convergence and divergence and focusing on the potential of the educational
systems to address the issue of educational equality.
Keywords: educational equality, tracking, foreign languages
1. Introduction
One of the main objectives of the educational systems and educational policies in
modern information and knowledge societies is to provide a well trained workforce and
to equip citizens with skills that will enable them to participate in an increasingly
interconnected global economy, and ultimately convert better jobs into better lives
(OECD, 2013b:3). At the same time, the importance of providing equal educational
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved.
© 2015 – 2017 Open Access Publishing Group
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opportunities for all students, regardless of socioeconomic or ethnic background is
paramount (Leicht, 2013). Embedded in the educational systems in all European
countries is the need for equality of opportunity so that students can fulfill their
potential and become active citizens (Official Journal of the European Union, 2009).
Bearing the above into consideration, in this article, we compare the educational
systems of Germany and Greece from an educational and sociological standpoint. We
especially focus on the opportunities the school system in these countries provides in
relation to the promotion of equality of educational opportunity. In this framework, the
analysis we present centers around the issues of early tracking and the teaching of
foreign languages, since these features of educational systems, and especially early
tracking, are often considered as representative of the level of educational opportunity
of educational systems.
This article is organized in the following way. First, the educational system of
each country is presented, focusing on parameters related to equality of opportunity.
This is followed by a critical comparison and an analysis of the educational system,
reaching conclusions regarding their potential for a decrease of social class inequalities.
2. The German educational system
The Federal Republic of Germany consists of sixteen states (Länder). The Federal
Ministry of Education and Research (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung)
produces general guidelines for education, while the states can create their own
legislation. This degree of autonomy means that there are differences among states in
regards to the education system (EP-Nuffic, 2015).
Education is compulsory between the ages of
and
. More specifically, the
duration of full-time compulsory education (compulsory general education) is nine
years (10 years in five of the Lander) and the subsequent period of part-time
compulsory
education
compulsory
vocational
education
is
three
years
(Kultusminister Konferenz, 2015:3). Education is provided in the following levels in
Germany.
2.1 Primary education
Primary education (Primarstufe) is provided at a Grundschule (primary school) for
children aged from six to ten years old (EP-Nuffic, 2015). Grundschule is mandatory for
children aged from six years old. It comprises four grades, apart from Berlin and
Brandenburg where it consists of six grades (Kultusminister Konferenz, 2015).
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The allocation of students to primary school is based on the school which is
nearest to their place of residence. However, in some länder, such as in NordrheinWestfalen and Schleswig-Holstein, parents can enrol their child in a Grundschule other
than the one nearest their home (Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of
Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany,
2015:104).
In the next part, we will present the characteristics of primary education in some
greater detail. More specifically, the issues of student grouping, time organization,
school subjects, teaching methods and certification will be presented.
Grouping of students, time organization and school subjects
Primary school pupils are usually taught in classes according to their age. In the first
two grades, there are not different teachers for the different school subjects, but the
majority of subjects are taught with the class teacher. The rationale behind choosing not
having a different teacher for each subject is that young students who relate to a small
number of teachers can adapt to school life easier than by having different teachers for
different school subjects (Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of
Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany,
2015:104). However, from grade 3 onwards the pupils have subject teachers, that is,
different teachers for different school subjects, as it helps them prepare for the transition
from primary to secondary education, where there are subject teachers.
In relation to the organization of time, primary school pupils attend lessons for
20 to 29 hours per week. In most Länder the number of hours is restricted to 20 to 22
hours in the first year, but increases to 27 hours in the fourth year of primary school. A
school hour usually has a duration of 45 minutes, while lessons take place in the
morning, with up to six hours per day.
The school subjects taught in primary education are German, mathematics,
general studies, foreign language, art, handicrafts/textile design, music, sports and
religion/ethics. The teaching of foreign languages in most Länder is compulsory from
grade 3, but in six Länder pupils are taught a foreign language from grade 1 (Secretariat
of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the
Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany, 2015). A variety of foreign languages is
taught at this level of education. These include English and French, while the languages
of neighbouring countries, such as Danish, Dutch, Polish, Czech and languages spoken
by many people living in Germany, such as Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish,
Turkish are also taught.
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Teaching methods, textbooks and certification
Innovative teaching methods, such as project-based learning is used in primary
education in Germany, since it is believed that it has a positive contribution to the
teaching process and produces better learning outcomes. Project-based teaching and
learning is beneficial to students, as it takes into account students experiences and can
promote collaboration, adopting a holistic approach to teaching and learning. In
relation to teaching materials, teachers can choose textbooks from the list of textbooks
approved by the Ministry of education. The use of Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) is becoming more and more widespread and schools usually are
provided with equipment to facilitate the use of ICT in the teaching process. Pupils who
complete primary school are not normally awarded a leaving certificate.
2.2 Secondary education
In comparison to OECD countries, Germany has one of the highest rates of 25-64 yearold people who have attended at least upper secondary education. The percentage of
this age group with upper secondary education qualification is 86%, compared to the
OECD average of 75% (OECD, 2013a).
Secondary education is usually divided into Sekundarstufe/Sekundarbereich I
(lower
secondary
education),
for
pupils
aged
10-16,
and
Sekundarstufe/Sekundarbereich II (upper secondary education), for pupils aged 16-19.
Secondary education includes courses that provide general education, a mixture of
general and vocational education, or vocational education. In the next part the structure
of lower secondary education is described and analysed.
2.3 Lower secondary education
A major goal of lower secondary education is to further the overall intellectual, emotional
and physical development of pupils, teaching them to be independent, make decisions and bear
their share of personal, social and political responsibility
and to increase
specialisation in line with each pupil's abilities and inclinations
the degree of
Secretariat of the Standing
Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the
Federal Republic of Germany, 2015:115).
Unlike Greece, in which lower secondary education is comprehensive, in
Germany lower secondary education (Sekundarstufe/Sekundarbereich I) is divided into
three distinct tracks. In most federal states, these tracks include the following school
types: (a) the lower track (Hauptschule), (b) the intermediate track (Realschule), and (c)
the academic track Gymnasium . It is worth mentioning that
Realschule only exist in any appreciable numbers in six Länder
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Kultusminister
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Konferenz, 2015:3). Gymnasium is the most prestigious track and the one with a more
distinct academic orientation in relation to the three other secondary school tracks, since
it is the only track that provides direct entry into tertiary education
J(rges and Schneider,
2007:371). We then describe the distinct features and orientation of each of these tracks.
The Hauptschule provides basic general education and usually covers grades 5
to 9, but it can also include grade 10. Its aim is to provide students with basic general
education, knowledge and qualifications that will enable them to continue their
education, mainly in courses leading to a vocational qualification.
At the Realschule, which usually covers grades 5 to 10, students receive more
extensive general education. Its aim is to provide students with knowledge that will
enable them to continue their education in courses leading to both a vocational
qualification and higher education qualifications. Students who attend Realschule
usually study German, foreign languages, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology,
geography, history, politics, music, art, sport and religious education.
The Gymnasium aims to teach intensified general education and comprises
grades 5 to 12 or 13. It provides intensified general education and the main subjects
taught are German, two foreign languages (at least), mathematics, physics, chemistry,
biology, geography, history, politics, music, art, sport and religious education.
To sum up, students are tracked in the following school types: a) Hauptschule,
which prepares pupils for manual jobs, b) Realschule, intermediate secondary school
which prepares for administrative and lower white-collar jobs , and c Gymnasium, which
lasts around three years longer than the other tracks, prepares for higher education and allows
for direct access to universities” (Krause and Schüller, 2014:2).
It is important to note that students who attend lower secondary education have
the right to switch between these three school types, on the basis of their academic
performance. However, downward educational mobility occurs more often than
upward mobility. That is, students are more likely to switch from Gymnasium to
Realschule and from Realschule to Hauptschule, rather than moving from Hauptschule
to Realschule or from Realschule to Gymnasium.
2.4 Teaching methods, assessment, progression and certification
In almost all Länder, measures have been taken to ensure that all students have equal
chances for educational success. Emphasis is placed on helping students from lower
socioeconomic and migrant backgrounds to fulfil their potential. The use of Information
and Communication Technologies (ICT) for educational purposes is gaining ground
and forms an integral part of the teaching process.
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Student assessment is based on all the work students have and on the results on
exercises throughout the school year. Oral work, as well as performance in sport, music,
and arts and crafts is also part of the assessment process. Each pupil's performance is
displayed in a school report twice a year, in the middle and at the end of the school
year. ‚part from information pertaining to the student s academic performance in the
different subjects taught at school, a report may also include comments regarding class
participation and behaviour at school (Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the
Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of
Germany, 2015).
Promotion of students to the next grade depends on their achievement level at
the end of the school term. An adequate mark or better is usually required in each of the
subjects that have a bearing on promotion. At the same time, very low marks in one
subject can be counterbalanced, to a certain extent, by at least satisfactory marks in
other subjects.
Students who have not been promoted must repeat class. In general, the
percentage of students who have to repeat a year does not exceed 4%. It is also worth
noting that if a student has extremely high performance levels, he/she can skip a grade.
Parents of students who are at risk of repeating a year due to low performance levels
are informed about it in the mid-year report. They may also be sent a written notice.
Some Länder have an assistance scheme for students facing low performance levels.
As regards certification, upon completion of the courses of education in lower
secondary level, the pupils receive a leaving certificate, provided that they have
successfully completed grade 9 or 10. In most of the Länder pupils are required to take
central examinations in order to obtain the lower education leaving certificate.
2.5 Upper secondary level
The
upper
secondary
education
(Sekundarstufe/Sekundarbereich
II)
includes
encompasses years 5-10 of the Gymnasium, as well as the Hauptschule and Realschule
in the older states.
2.6 Teaching foreign languages
The teaching of foreign languages in the German educational system starts from an
early age. More specifically, in six Länder, students start learning the first foreign
language from the age of 6 (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017).
A second foreign language is obligatory at Gymnasium in grades 7 to 10. Since
educational policy aims at increasing the teaching of foreign languages in primary
education, at the Gymnasium students study a second foreign language from grade 6. At
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Hauptschule and Realschule students may choose to study a second foreign language,
but it is not mandatory.
In general, foreign languages form an integral part of basic general education at
all lower secondary level schools from grade 5. On transition to lower secondary level,
foreign language learning is linked to knowledge that has been acquired in the primary
sector and expands on it.
Teaching of foreign languages in lower secondary education aims at making
students independent and autonomous learners, so they can become responsible for
their own learning. To achieve this, teaching methods and materials are selected on the
basis of students needs, experiences and preferences.
At this level of education students are expected to acquire knowledge that
corresponds to level B1 of the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (CEFR). It is worth mentioning that the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages provides a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses,
curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc. across Europe. It describes in a
comprehensive way what language learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for
communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act
effectively (Council of Europe, 2001:1).
In accordance with the European objectives for multilingualism, the teaching of
foreign languages aims at providing students with opportunities to get fundamental
knowledge in at least another foreign language.
2.7 Higher education
Despite widened access in many countries in recent decades, Germany does not have a
high percentage of people with higher education attainment. More specifically, 28% of
Germans, aged 25 to 34 have attained a higher education, compared to an OECD
average of 39% for this age group (OECD, 2013a).
Higher education in Germany is organized on the basis of a binary system. This
system distinguishes between academic education and higher professional education.
There are also institutions outside the higher education system. Thus, some Länder also
have ‛erufsakademien , which offer an alternative to higher education in the form of
courses qualifying to practise a profession for those who have completed the upper
level of secondary education and gained a higher education entrance qualification.
Types of Institutions
Higher education institutions in Germany fall into the following categories: (a)
universities
and
equivalent
institutions
of
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education
(Technische
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Hochschulen/Technische Universitäten, Pädagogische Hochschulen, theological colleges et al),
(b) colleges of art and music, and (c) Fachhochschulen (Hochschulen für angewandte
Wissenschaften).
Apart from the above, Germany's tertiary sector also includes either state-run or
state recognised Berufsakademien in some Länder.
Admission to higher education institutions
In some higher education departments and courses of study, in which the number of
applicants exceeds the number of places available, there are quotas. This means that not
everyone who wishes to attend these departments can secure a place. Some
departments with this numerous clauses policy include medicine, veterinary medicine,
dentistry and pharmacy, which are preferred by many higher education applicants.
A percentage of up to 20 per cent of the available places in higher education
institutions are allocated in advance. These places are reserved for students coming
from countries outside the European Union, or for students who face financial
problems. The criteria for the selection of applicants for the remaining places are the
applicant's degree of qualification for the given course of study. This is normally the
applicant s average mark in the Abitur, which is a school-leaving examination. The
abitur is obtained at upper Gymnasium level (gymnasiale Oberstufe) by passing the
Abitur
examination.
Students
who
obtain the
‚bitur
get
the
‚llgemeine
Hochschulreife , which is the general higher education entrance qualification that
entitles access to higher education institutions (Kultusminister Konferenz, 2015). This
criterion has a bearing of 20%.
Other criteria for entry to higher education include the waiting period between
acquiring the entrance qualification for the chosen course of study and applying (20%).
An especially important criterion that determines entry to higher education and
allocation within it is the result of a selection procedure which is done by the higher
education institutions themselves (60%). Higher education institutions can introduce an
additional selection criterion, such as the performance in a test to determine the
applicant s capability to study a specific subject, the type of vocational education and
training or occupation, the result of an interview regarding motivation for the chosen
course of study, or a combination of these criteria. In this process, the degree of
qualification for the course of study in question is of primary importance (Secretariat of
the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the
Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany, 2015)
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Having presented the general organization of the educational system in
Germany, in the next part, the basic characteristics of the Greek educational systems are
presented.
3. The Greek educational system
Education in Greece is under the jurisdiction of the Greek Ministry of Education,
Research and Religious Affairs. and contains (a) primary education, lasting for six years
for children aged 6-12 years, (b) lower secondary education, which lasts for three years,
(c) upper secondary education (general and vocational), which lasts for three years, and
(d) higher education (Kyriazis and Asderaki, 2008). Higher education is divided into the
university and technological sectors and is funded and controlled by the Greek Ministry
of Education, Research and Religious Affairs (Stamelos, Kiprianos, Balias and
Kamarianos, 2011), while there are no tuition fees (Kyriazis and Asderaki, 2008), apart
from certain postgraduate courses of study.
Since demand for participation in higher education exceeds the places available,
especially for high status and prestigious courses of study, there is a numerus clausus
policy (Gouvias, 1998). Admission to higher education institutions depends mainly on
performance (grades) in the university entrance examinations. Students are also
allocated to the different higher education institutions and departments on the basis of
their preference in a special list higher education applicants need to complete.
In recent decades there has been a substantial increase in the number of students
participating in higher education (Sianou-Kyrgiou and Tsiplakides, 2009; Foundation
for Economic and Industrial Research, 2017). However, widened access has not led to a
significant decrease in social class inequalities in higher education. Social class
inequalities exist, mainly due to the different allocation within higher education of
students from middle and working class backgrounds (Sianou-Kyrgiou and
Tsiplakides, 2011). Research findings on choice of studies in higher education in Greece
show that the higher education sector in Greece is highly stratified. Greece may have
experienced widened higher education participation, but students from different social
classes attend different higher education departments”, since students from lower socioeconomic
backgrounds are overrepresented in lower status courses of study (Tsiplakides, 2017a:174). In
Greece, like in many other countries, students from higher social classes usually attend
high status university departments that lead to high-skill occupations with increased
material and symbolic benefits (Eurydice, 2014; Tsiplakides, 2017b).
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4. The educational systems of Greece and Germany in comparative perspective
The above description of the educational system in the two countries shows that there
are areas of convergence and divergence. In other words, some features of the
educational systems are common, while in other areas there are stark differences. The
analysis that follows adopts an educational and a sociological perspective. This means
that it aims at providing a comparison of the educational systems in these two countries
focusing mainly on the equality of educational opportunity provided by the educational
systems. It has to be noted that a comparison of all the aspects of the educational
systems is beyond the scope of this paper. Rather, we focus on two features of the
educational systems in Germany and Greece: tracking and ability grouping and the
teaching of foreign languages (especially English).
We chose to focus on these aspects of the educational system in these two
countries, since they are related to the issue of equality of educational opportunity and
participation as active citizens in modern globalized societies. Young people with
limited knowledge of foreign languages have difficulties moving from education to the
labour market and are therefore more prone to poverty and social exclusion. In
addition, tracking in secondary education may limit the educational opportunities of
certain students, not allowing them to fulfill their potential or participating in higher
education.
Early tracking and educational inequalities
The German educational system is characterized as a tracked one, in which tracking
occurs at 10 years of age
Marks et al,
:
. More specifically, at the end of primary
school, usually at the age of ten, German pupils are typically given a more or less binding
(depending on the state) recommendation which type of secondary school they should visit
J(rges and Schneider,
:
. This means that in Germany there are
academic and technical secondary school tracks
distinct
Jenkins et al, 2007:22).
This recommendation has important implications for the students future
educational as well as occupational trajectories. Germany is one of the countries in
Europe, such as the Netherlands and France, in which tracking starts relatively early
(Brunello et al, 2004). It is also worth noting that the German educational system has a
vocational orientation and an apprenticeship system that facilitates the transition from
school to the labour market (McGinnity and Hillmert, 2004), since there is a
combination between school and
work-place training
Hillmert,
:
. In this
article, in accordance with the relevant literature, we use the term to refer to the practice
of dividing students into categories and are assigned to different classes, sometimes
having a different curriculum (Oakes, 1985; LeTendre et al, 2003).
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The justification for early tracking is based on the creation of homogeneous
classrooms that offer a learning environment that takes into account the student s
abilities, skills and preferences, thus increasing the quality of instruction (Guill et al,
2013). It is suggested that tracking benefits lower ability and higher ability students
alike. By contrast, opponents of tracking argue that it contributes to the maintenance of
social class inequalities in education and does not help weaker students improve their
academic performance. Research seems to confirm this claim. For instance, research
findings indicate that tracking after primary school increases educational inequality and
decreases academic performance (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2005). In relation to the
allocation of students to the different tracks of lower secondary education, research
findings indicate that parents from socially privileged backgrounds are more likely than less
privileged parents to enroll their children in an academic-track Gymnasium without a
corresponding recommendation
Max Planck Institute for Human Development,
: -
. In relation to ‛ourdieu s theory of cultural reproduction, we can see that students
from families with high levels of financial, cultural and social capital (Bourdieu, 2007)
adjust easier to the school s culture and have higher school performance than their
working class counterparts (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1977). In general, researchers argue
that there is a high level of social class segregation in Germany in relation to secondary
education Jenkins et al,
. Similarly, research has established that
there is a
tendency for countries with tracked school systems in which selection occurs at a young age,
such as Belgium, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Hungary, to show stronger relationships
and countries which are not tracked or where tracking occurs at a later age
Marks et al,
2006:115).
By contrast, the Greek educational system is not a tracked one, but one which
keeps its
entire secondary-school system comprehensive
Hanushek and Woessmann,
2005). Students at all levels of education are taught in heterogeneous classes and there is
not tracking according to earlier school performance or other criteria.
The only instance of tracking is in lower secondary education for the teaching of
English as a foreign language. Students who have graduated from primary education
and are in the first grade of lower secondary education take an English test at the
beginning of the school year. This test is designed to assess the students level of
English language knowledge. It is worth noting that this test is not centrally developed
by the Ministry of Education. Instead, English teaches devise their test which they
administer to their students. Students are allocated to two tracks depending on
performance in this test. Students are divided in two groups for the teaching of English
as a foreign language. The higher track includes the students with the best results in the
test, while the lower track consists of the students with lower performance in the test.
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Students in the two tracks have different textbooks for the first two classes of lower
secondary school, but the same for the third class. It is expected that by the beginning of
grade three, differences among students regarding knowledge of the English language
will have been removed. The allocation of students to the two tracks is not flexible.
After allocation to a track, students cannot switch between groups, even if their
performance in the subject of English has shown improvement.
Foreign languages teaching
In both countries, the teaching of foreign languages is of primary importance. The
educational systems in Greece and Germany are influenced by the Barcelona objective,
which places emphasis on the knowledge of foreign languages and urges European
Union countries to introduce the teaching of foreign languages from an early age at
school (Council of the European Union, 2002). The Barcelona objective also states that
people should learn two or more languages in addition to their first language
Eurydice,
2017a:7). In European Union countries in 2014, 83.8 % of primary school students were
taught at least one foreign language, while in 2005 the percentage was much lower, 67.3
% (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017). More students are offered a second
foreign language in secondary education as well. More specifically, in 2014 59.7 % of
secondary school students were taught at least one foreign language, while in 2005 the
percentage was much lower, 46.7 % (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017).
In Germany, the teaching of foreign language begins very early. More
specifically, it starts in grade 3, but in six Länder students are taught a foreign language
from
grade
1
(https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Germany:Teaching_and
_Learning_in_Primary_Education).
The foreign languages offered are mainly English and French, while the students
are also taught the languages of neighbouring countries, such as Dutch, or the
languages spoken by many people living in Germany, such as Italian. In lower
secondary education, the curriculum is an extension of what students have learnt in
primary education. Students who finish lower secondary education are expected to
have acquired level B1, according to the Common European Framework of Reference
for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001).
In Greece, the teaching of English as a foreign language starts from primary
education. Students study English from primary to upper secondary education. Apart
from English, other foreign languages which are taught in the Greek educational system
include French, German and Italian in some schools. The central position of foreign
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languages stems from the fact that educational policy accepts that knowledge of foreign
languages can reduce poverty and social exclusion, while at the same time
multilingualism promotes the growth of an antagonistic society based on the use of
knowledge (European Council of Barcelona, 2002).
‛oth countries use modern teaching methods, making use of the students needs
and experiences, using authentic material and tasks with the aim of fostering student
autonomy with the foreign language. In addition, the use of Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) is rapidly gaining ground.
In conclusion, both Germany and Greece promote the teaching of foreign
languages, and especially English, as a means toward equipping young people with
valuable knowledge that will help them in their professional and personal lives. The
educational policies in relation to foreign languages is based on the premise that that
multilingualism can safeguard against social exclusion and can bring about equality of
opportunity as far as labour market outcomes are concerned. Young people with
knowledge of foreign languages can become active European Union citizens, participate
in modern information societies and find occupations with high material and symbolic
benefits.
5. Conclusion
The above discussion and comparison of the educational systems in Germany and
Greece is not an exhaustive one. It does not include all aspects and characteristics of the
schooling system in these countries. It focuses on tracking in secondary education and
the teaching of foreign languages, especially the English language. The presentation, the
analysis and the comparison undertaken adopts an educational and sociological
perspective. The aim was to link educational policy in these two areas with the
prerogative for equality of educational opportunity and the provision of opportunities
for students to become active citizens in modern globalized information societies.
Bearing the above into consideration, the above analysis shows that there are
areas of convergence and divergence in the educational systems of Greece and
Germany. Concerning the former, an effort to introduce the teaching of foreign
languages from an early age is a common element in both countries. The important
attached in the knowledge of foreign languages is a result of policies within the
European Union that link multilingualism with a host of benefits at personal and
national level. From a sociological perspective, the early introduction of foreign
languages in the school curriculum can have a positive contribution to the reduction of
social class inequalities, since it can provide all students with valuable knowledge.
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Iakovos Tsiplakides
THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS OF GREECE AND GERMANY IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE:
HOW DO THEY ADDRESS THE ISSUE OF EDUCATIONAL EQUALITY?
As far as areas of divergence are concerned, the German educational system has
been for a long time a highly tracked one (Hart, 2016). This, according to research may
lead to an exacerbation of social class inequalities (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2005).
Research has shown that tracking makes stronger the relationship between family
background and student achievement, and as a result educational inequalities increase
(Schütz et al, 2008; Leicht, 2013).
Students attend different types of lower secondary education on the basis of
school performance. By contrast, in Greece tracking or ability grouping, with the
exception of the teaching of English as a foreign language does not exist. However,
research has shown that in Greece is a relationship between knowledge of the English
language, as attested by official certifications, and social class (Tsiplakides, 2014). This
means that the above issues in both countries need to be addressed, since they seem to
be linked to the maintenance of social class inequalities in education.
Acknowledgements
This project was funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union. More
specifically, Erasmus + Programme: Key Action 2 (2014-2016) (Grant Agreement
Number: 2014-1-DE03-KA201-001252_3).
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