European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science
ISSN: 2501 - 1235
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1235
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
10.5281/zenodo.60652
Volume 2│Issue 2│2016
EFFECTIVE FACTORS ON WOMEN'S PROMOTIONAL IN
SPORT MANAGEMENT IN IRANi
Mohammad Ehsani1ii, Nahid Shetab Boshehri2,
Hashem Koozehchian3
1,3
Prof., Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
2
Dr., Shahid Chamran Ahvaz University, Iran
Abstract:
This paper examines women's position in Iran based sports organizations throughout
the country. It is argued that: the so-called-neutral promotion process is biased against
female candidates and in the end; it serves the purpose of reinforcing a male-dominated
top management (Aitchison, 2003; Mckay, 1996; Shinew & Arnold, 1998).
The data were collected through self-administered questionnaire α=.
in
.
The findings of the study reveal several key items in evaluating candidates for
promotion. The variables of higher education, organizational commitment, political
skills, family support, ICT skills, psychological factors and sport management skills
ranked the upper intermediate level for the female managers, but organizational
environment stood at the lower level.
In spite of these factors, women are absent from senior leadership positions and
their powerlessness in hierarchy of Iranian sport organization is evidently shown. It is
suggested that sport organizations bring about some changes aimed at supporting the
women managers in fulfilling their needs.
Keywords: sport, management, women, promotion
This research was supported by Tarbiat Modares University, Iran.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Professor Mohammad Ehsani,
Email: ehsani@modares.ac.ir
i
ii
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved
Published by Open Access Publishing Group ©2015.
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Mohammad Ehsani, Nahid Shetab Boshehri, Hashem Koozehchian EFFECTIVE FACTORS ON WOMEN'S PROMOTIONAL IN
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1.
Introduction
In the past three decades, Iranian athletes comprised of male athletes only. From 1980all women’s sports activities were managed by women under a semi-separate
organization yet still supervised by the Sports Organization. At the beginning of the
separation, women athletes had many problems in areas such as management,
coaching, referees, and so on; however, they could organize and train their related
human resources. For example, before 1979, there were 32 female coaches and 10 female
referees,
’
female coaches and
’
female referees in
, and still they could
have not achieved any upper management positions in the national sports
organizations (Dargahi, 2006). As Aguiar (2004) pointed out this situation of conflict
was a good opportunity for Iranian women to get involved in sports management,
coaching, and refereeing for their own teams. Iran encompasses 31 provinces and 46
sports federations only one of which is run by one woman president of the Physical
Fitness Federation. The remaining 45 federations are run by men. In 2008, despite the
separation of women sports activities, the women sports organization again merged
with the Sports Organizations and then forced all federations, associations, and
provinces to have a female vice president (88.9%). Although, every federation,
association, and province has one female vice president, the executive board comprising
five to seven members, is still male dominated; women have one vote, and men have
the rest, which means all decision making in federations, associations, and provinces,
and the Sports Organization is dominated by men (99.9%). (Shetab Boshehri, 2010). This
proves the male domination in the National Sports Administration System. The
representation of women in leadership and decision-making positions had been
considerably marginalized.
Unfortunately, very limited academic attention has been dedicated to the study
of Iranian women in the realm of sports management. The gender structure of the NSOs
has rarely been under systematic academic investigation as a core issue in the
scholarship of Iranian women in sports. The emphasis in most of the literature
concerning Iranian women in sports is largely, if not exclusively, regarding female
athletes on the playing fields, but female sports administration strive for a position in
the male-dominated national sport bureaucracy. “lthough, women’s disproportionate
under-representation in key management works is touched upon in some works
concerning Iranian women in sport, the issue has been approached only insufficiently.
Researchers have not taken a further step to deconstruct discriminatory
organizational practices that account for women’s disadvantageous position in
management. Discussions on women’s experience and the construction of gender
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Mohammad Ehsani, Nahid Shetab Boshehri, Hashem Koozehchian EFFECTIVE FACTORS ON WOMEN'S PROMOTIONAL IN
SPORT MANAGEMENT IN IRAN
relations in national sports organizations are neglected and remained considerably
under-explored. Compared with the increasing amount of research dedicated to
studying women’s organizational well-being in the decision-making and leadership of
national and international sports, Iran lags considerably behind in this field of enquiry
(Shetab Boshehri, 2010). The organizational culture embedded with deep-rooted gender
disparity has not been fully examined. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study is
to clarify the underlying reasons for persistent gender inequality in Iranian NSOs and,
in particular, barriers to the promotion of women.
2.
Background
Critics and feminist scholars emphasize on how gender is embedded with and enacted
through sports, and how sport as an institution has been developed by and for men
(Hartnann-Tews & Pfister, 2003). Factors such as the discrepancies between the top
performances of women and men seem to legitimize existing gender hierarchies in
sports. This functions as compelling evidence of men’s superiority and makes the
prevailing gender order in sports
natural and fair e.g., ”irell
as in society as a whole - appear as something
.
Simultaneously, the history of sports shows how women have continually
sought for equal rights and equal access to various sports and sports organizations. In
few countries (e.g., Nordic countries, China, South Korea) women have gained access in
recent decades to powerful male sports such as football and ice hockey. Considering
this, the distinctive feature of gender segregation as well as the process of gender
equalization which characterize current institutional sports practices can, however, be
seen as a double symbolic message regarding meanings of gender: equalization on the
one hand and de-equalization, or asymmetric gender segregation, on the other. These
two characteristics, however, pose interesting parallels to the gender arrangements in
our modern societies. Thus, sports provide both arenas for cultural transgression as
well as hegemonic images of insuperable gender differences and represent both a motor
for and a challenge to the dominant societal gender order.
Birell and Theberge have presented this double potential in the following terms:
… if gender relations are ever to be transformed, that transformation may first have to
be realized on the symbolic and ideological level, and it is on this level that sport works.
Sport is an excellent site for examining how patriarchal relations are played out, for it is
in sport that dominant notions of masculine superiority are produced as common sense.
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It is in sport; too, that such common sense can be directly challenged and resisted by the
appearance of girls and women who are capable athletes
Hovden & Pfister, 2006, (1994:365)
DeHass (2004) reported that the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
found there were more female student athletes than male student ones but fewer female
coaches than male coaches.
McKay
(1996)
argues
that
organization
embedded
with
pronounced
institutionalized gender patters cannot be analyzed in a gender -neutral way:
Organizations are key sites where gender struggles take place and into which femininities and
masculinities are both constructed and reproduced. Hall et al.
, further assert that,
… although the proportion of women in leadership positions at the national or international
level in governmental and non-governmental sports organizations varies from one country to
another, generally speaking, women are under-represented. Despite the fact that women’s
under-representation in sports organizations has become an overt and universal issue
across national boundaries, the underlying reasons attributed to the problem vary in
different cultures and societies. An increasing number of empirical studies have
documented gender relations within national sport organizations in a variety of
countries (Cui, 2007). For example, Hall et al. applied Kanter’s structure of opportunity,
power, and proportions and Hearn and Parkin’s dialectical relationship between
organization and sexuality to their investigation of the gender structure of Canadian
NSOs.
The potential reasons for women’s under-representation and men’s overrepresentation in influential positions in sport management can be described as
overwhelming. Many reasons are associated with the assumptions frequently made
about employment roles and women’s and men’s perceived abilities (McKay, 1996).
The most common reasons are related to assumptions about appropriate
leadership characteristics, the organizational environment, and reward practices. To
demonstrate, a commonly held belief is that leadership roles entail a commitment of
time and energy beyond minimum job requirements, but women are often expected to
deal with childcare and domestic responsibilities that must be negotiated above and
beyond their public responsibilities (Frisby, 1992; Frisby & Brown, 1991; Hall, Cullen &
Slack, 1989; McKay, 1996,; Mills, 1993; Rehman and Frisby, 2000). Men, on the other
hand, are often expected to have fewer family responsibilities, and therefore can
sacrifice more time to their work responsibilities (Hovden, 2000a). Other reasons for
women’s under-representation in the senior management of sport organizations are
linked to the perceived naturalness of men occupying those positions.
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Women who achieve levels of influence in sport organizations, therefore, may be
considered to have done so only because they have expressed discourse of masculinity,
which might not be welcomed by men (Shaw & Hoeber, 2003).
3.
Leadership in Sport
The sixth Brighton Declaration principle is about Leadership in Sport:
Women are under-represented in the leadership and decision making of all sport and
sport related organizations. Those responsible for these areas should develop policies and
programs and design structures which increase the number of women coaches, advisers,
decision makers, officials, administrators, and sport personnel at all levels with special
attention given to recruitment, development, and retention.
It is widely recognized that women are not adequately represented in the
decision making and leadership positions in sport, particularly in countries in the
Middle East, Africa, and South America. For this reason, the International Olympic
Committee (IOC) decided to explore this situation and create a working group
committed to increasing the number of women in sport management’s decision-making
and leadership positions around the world.
In Atlanta, Georgia, USA, in July 1996, at the 10th International Olympic
Committee session, a paper presented by the Working Group on Women and Sport was
ratified by the Executive Board. Four specific actions were adopted to increase the
number of women in decision-making positions:
1. The NOC should immediately establish a goal to be achieved by 31 December
2000 that at least 10% of all offices held in decision-making structures (in
particular all legislative or executive agencies) be taken by women and that such
percentage should reach 20% by 31 December 2005.
2. The International federations, the national federations, and the sports
organizations belonging to the Olympic movement should also immediately
establish a goal to be achieved by 31 December 2000 that at least 10% of all
positions in all decision-making structures (in particular all legislative or
executive agencies) be held by women and that such percentage should reach
20% by 31 December 2005.
3. The subsequent stages to reach a strict enforcement of the principle of equality
for men and women shall be determined by the year 2001.
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4. The Olympic Charger will be amended to take the equality for men and women
into account.
In 1996 in Lausanne, Switzerland, the IOC also organized a World Conference on
Women and Sport. More than 220 participants from 96 countries attended the
conference and support was given in letters from many presidents, prime ministers,
and members of royal families around the world. The purpose of the conference was to
assess the progress made on the issue of women and sport in the sports world, to
exchange experiences and to outline priority issues to enhance women’s participation in
the Olympic movement.
The conference was based on five key themes:
1. Women and the Olympic Movement;
2. Women’s Role in “dministration and Coaching;
3. Culture and Women’s Sport;
4. Women’s Education and Health through Sport and Physical “ctivity;
5. Governmental and Non-governmental Support for Women’s Sport.
Mr. Juan Antonio Samaranch, President of the IOC, stated:
We have already made some important achievements, but much still remains to be done.
There are obstacles of all kinds whether cultural, technical, or economic. Therefore, a cooperative effort is required from the IOC, the International Federations, the National
Olympic Committees, the sports organizations, governments, and inter and nongovernmental organizations, and the media. The Olympic Movement is determined to
make its contribution and to ensure that the twenty-first century will be the beginning of
a new era for women in the sports world.
The latest report, Women in the Olympic Movement , October 1998, states that the most
of the recommendations have now been taken into account by the IOC, the NOCs and
ITS.
…the IOC strongly encourages, by appropriate means, the promotion of women in sport
at all levels and in all structures, particularly in the executive bodies of national and
international sports organizations with a view to the strict application of the principle of
equality between women and men .
http://www.womenandsport
According to the results of the Norwegian and German studies, the ideal leader of
sports organizations is the most often a highly-educated, middle-aged man, in full-time
employment in the high-income bracket, with a large network, with the knowledge and
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the behavior of an insider, and demonstrative investment of time and energy Hovden
2000; Doll-Tepper & Pfister 2004). No doubt , leaders in sports organizations portray the
image that they spend a lot of time on their voluntary work, and most of them are
convinced that this investment of time is necessary (Gernandt, 2005). Studies show,
however, that performances are not automatically better if more time is spent on the
work (e.g., Rapoport et al. 2002). It is thus a widespread myth in organizations that time
is a good measurement of the quality of work and that the amount of time spent
indicates the loyalty and commitment of workers and leaders.
Iranian sport is largely managed by the Sport Organization, which is the center
for the national sports system and administrators all sport-related affairs across
country. It is the basic functionary responsible for the daily sport operations of all the
provinces and federations. At the present, the parliament has approved the Sport
Ministry instead of the Sport Organization.
4.
Method
The study, from which the presented material was derived, has drawn on theoretical
approaches of the analysis of organizations which gave rise to questions, hypotheses,
and analytic tools to explain the gender hierarchy in the executive bodies of Iranian
sports organizations. With these approaches gender differences can be observed with
regard to the abilities, qualifications, experience, motivation and resources of women as
well as their work in the family, careers in sport, structure and culture of their
organization, significance of gender in relationships, attitudes, judgments, barriers and
opportunities in positions of leadership.
Thus it was possible, among other things, to identify an existing leader ideal that
may also enable us to identify individuals and groups who do not live up to those
ideals. Questionnaires were sent to all senior women officials and managers (30) in the
Iranian sports organizations. Two reminders were also sent. The response rate was 83%
(25). Reasons should be suggested for the relatively high response rate. It may be
explained by the high quality of the questionnaire, or the topic of the project,
The
Factors of Achieving Sport Management for Women in Iran. The title evoked associations
with feminism and gender quality policies, i.e. ideas and concepts that are currently not
an issue of debate or in general a matter of interest in Iran. Men and many women do
not consider equality an important topic. There is a widespread belief that gender
equality has been reached and therefore there is no need for further debates (Borchorst
& Dahlerup, 2003). This was at least the explanation given by the members which were
senior officials delegated by the sports organizations.
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The questionnaire was divided into two sections. The first section requested
individuals’ characteristics. The second section included 40 questions (Likert Scales)
about management psychology, new technology, management skills, family support,
political skills, commitments, and organizational environments. It was considered by 17
specialists in sport management departments at the universities of Iran and its content
reliability was a=0.86 which was satisfactory. Also, there were open questions about
women’s barriers to high management levels of sport management organizations.
Authors categorize the answers of the open questions according to importance of
barriers.
5.
Findings
The data indicates female managers (100%) were entrusted with responsibilities at their
place of work. The majority (96%) of women was able to control and monitor their
personnel and provide a good atmosphere for them. The results showed that 92% of
female managers had good knowledge and management skills; also, 84% of them used
workshops to obtain updated knowledge. Another clear result of our study was that
88% of the responders had very good self-confidence for getting managerial positions.
The data indicated that 96% of women maintained the same degree of satisfaction as
men with regard to appreciation for their work in their organization, interpersonal
relationships, degrees of influence, and opportunities to fulfill their ambitions. In risk
management, 80% were confident about their knowledge and abilities. Around 80% of
the respondents reported that they had not experienced opposition or a lack of support
on the part of their organization and had little stress for their positions as managers.
64% of respondents believed that there was no difference between women and men
mangers for personnel, while 72% believed that men personnel accepted women as
managers. 84% mentioned they had no problems with women personnel and that they
felt supported by them. 68% of respondents indicated that they received co-operation
and support from their families. 88% mentioned that their husbands accepted their job
responsibilities, and
% believe that the manager’s position is more important than
household responsibilities. Also, 76% provided a political network and 56% had access
to an organizational network. 60% of them used a person in a position of power to
obtain their promotion. 64% used skills and communication for their promotion. 76% of
women managers were familiar with management skills and 60% with new technology.
52% of the respondents reported that they were not only highly satisfied with their
senior position in general, but also with the individual tasks and the interpersonal
relationships, it entailed
in short, with the organizational culture and English
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language for international communication. Although the organizational culture was
male dominated, women were treated the same as male managers. 44% believed that
sport organizations were divided into men and women sections and 48% believed that
planners and decision makers were men. 72% of the respondents had no limitation for
their suggestions and recommendations.
The data shows that almost half (48%) of the respondents agreed completely or
partially with the statement that high level managers accepted their recommendations.
The answers from the female respondents seem to make clear that they see themselves
as gender neutral workers in their organization and that they are
that they are
or at least believe
treaded and appreciated as such. They also stated that sports
organizations are seen as gender neutral arenas, and they emphasized that quality of
work is the crucial factor and not the gender for evaluation. The following sections
outline the qualities identified from the research data (open question) as most salient in
blocking women’s promotions and constraining them from competing for senior
management positions. It should be pointed out that even though some traits are
seldom spelled out in official selection documents, they have a far-reaching impact on
women’s careers in Iran’s sports organizations. The large majority of respondents
seemed to share this attitude and lived up to the ideal leader image with a strong
commitment and high degree of self-confidence (M=4.45, 96%; Table 1).
The data indicated that, the overwhelming majority of the respondents put the
responsibility for the gender hierarchy in sports organizations either on individual
women or women as a group. The explanations focusing on the supply side emphasize
women’s attitudes, capacities, and decisions. Similar tendencies and explanations have
been observed in other studies of sports organizations. One of Hovden’s
b
conclusions from a Norwegian study was that men in leading positions explained the
absence of women most often as an individual problem.
6.
Discussion
Despite the fact that the Iranian sports system seemingly has no official rules that give
an advantage or a disadvantage to either women or men, the lack of a rule obliging
leaders to leave their offices after a certain period of time (e.g. four years) prevents new
candidates from gaining access to executive bodies.
“s far as this study is concerned, Kanter’s
approach provides a useful tool
to understand the situation of women in Iran’s national sports organizations. Firstly, a
woman places emphasis on organizational structures and processes, such as promotion.
Secondly, the development of an analytical framework grounded in opportunity,
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power, and proportions, provides an effective means to examine the so-called genderneutral sport organizations and explains why and how women are deprived of access to
equal promotion opportunities. These three variables, it was argued, play a part in the
construction of gendered organizational patterns. They are interrelated in a
sophisticated organizational structure and collectively create an organizational
environment that shapes people’s behaviors and determines their success within an
organization, particularly the disadvantaged, such as women. All three factors are
reflected and co-related in the promotion process and the criteria for candidate selection
in Iranian NSOs. Leaders possess the power to influence how decisions are made, how
scarce resources are distributed, and what activities are valued within organizations.
However, the insidious gendered promotion criteria deny the women further
development opportunities at a higher level of an organization’s hierarchy.
Consequently, when women are disproportionately under-represented at the top
of the administration hierarchy, their power to influence decision-making within an
organization becomes limited.
The framing of gender issues, pointing to the contexts in which the gender
hierarchy is described and discussed, seems to follow patterns which have emerged in
other Scandinavian studies (e.g., Hovden, 2000b). For example, the respondents most
often focus on the supply side, i.e. on women’s individual choices and resources,
without a discussion of the organizational conditions in which these decisions are
made. The material also shows that senior officials in Iranian sports organizations were
not very interested in the discussion of gender issues and hierarchies. The sports
leaders looked upon the organizational structures and cultures as abstract, and gender
neutral. Thus, it can be difficult to establish relevant arenas in which more critical views
on organizational gender relations can be framed.
The active participation of women’s families serves as a network and provides
social support. Women possess this form of social support even more than their male
counterparts. This may indicate that women need more resources directly related to
sports than when they aspire to a leadership position in male dominated sports
organizations.
These results seem to confirm the theory that female leaders in sports
organizations must have the characteristics of the ideal leader to be accepted (Hovden,
2000b). They have acquired high professional and sport specific competencies, and they
can rely on even more social support than their male colleagues, however, they do not
possess as much power as the men in the organizations.
What does this signify and what can this result contribute to an explanation of
the gender hierarchy in the Iranian sports system? In order to answer the question of
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whether women in executive bodies represent a distinctive group with uncommon
characteristics, comparisons should not be confined to their male counterparts; they
should be rather related to the overall female population, as well. As mentioned before,
99.5% of sports, managers are men. On the basis of demographic statistics, it can be
concluded that the respondents of the survey are not representative of the population as
a whole with regard to either vocational qualifications or occupational/professional
status: 60% of the women in the sample have undergone long-term higher education.
The socio-demographic and sporting backgrounds of senior officials bring to
light factors which point to barriers hindering access to leading positions at both
individual and institutional levels. This means that the fifty percent of women who
have, as mentioned above, no considerable record of involvement as a member of sports
clubs and who have less favorable social environment and support from their family.
They do not have the qualities and experiences that are expected and do not fit into the
preferred group of leader candidates in most situations. Thus, the average woman has
relatively little chance of attaining a position of leadership in the world of sports. On the
other hand, the question arises as to whether these positions of leadership are at all
attractive for any woman and whether the status gained by them having a senior
position in sports is of as much benefit to women as it is to men.
Why did the female claim that there were no major problems of opposition that
they had to overcome in the course of their career? There is, of course, no single answer
to this question, but we will put forward a few suggestions. The female leaders in this
study represent those whose competence has been found
weighty enough
to be
selected have shown the right qualifications , have been able to compete with their male
colleagues on seemingly gender neutral premises and have adapted to the dominant
leader ideal (Hovden, 2000).
A potential barrier to taking up a position of leadership in a sports organization,
which is at the same time a structural problem of such organizations, is the great
amount of time that is consumed by the duties involved. Most organizations value the
fact that their workers sacrifice their time for their work. Long working hours is,
however, not the only factor which influences the outcome. How, when, and by whom
the work is done is part of the gendered organizational culture and can be changed
(Pfister, 2007).
As can be seen in Table 1 and also in the model both of which were drawn from
the study, the respondents were asked about commitment and responsibilities as well
as about their relations to the organizations. The assumption that women handle tasks
differently from men and that their competence is not as greatly appreciated in sports
organizations as that of men, was not supported by data material. The majority of the
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respondents (96%) described themselves as being just as responsible and committed
and nearly as self-confident as their male colleagues. The majority (92%) of those
surveyed believed that their management skills and qualifications are as good as men’s,
followed by management skills (92%), psychological and personality factors (88%),
communication skills (80%), family support (68%), political skills (64%), ICT and up-todate management skills (60%), support of the environmental and cultural organization
(48%).
It should be noted that the low presentation of women in executive bodies is
regarded as a crucial problem. On the other hand, there is a fairly large group who
considers gender equality issue as simply important, and a relatively large number of
senior officials were either undecided or indifferent. In their comments on the
questions, those who were indifferent frequently stated that they did not care about
gender but solely about the competence of the person holding office. They commented
on this issue like this: If women try hard enough, they can make it, or According to my
experiences, there is always a place for good people. In the wake of the new women's
movement, the lack of female executives in sports organizations again became an issue
on the agenda of the women's movement inside and outside of sport, and the lack of
regulations governing terms of office was criticized as detrimental to women. Although
it was decided at one point in time that leaders should leave their positions after eight
years, this rule was never given the opportunity to take effect (Trangbaek, 2006).
7.
Concluding Remarks
The study shows that the majority of female respondents claim that they have not
experienced certain gendered barriers from the sports organizations and that they have
not been confronted with gendered stereotypes. However, in their attempt to explain
the male dominance in sports organizations, male and female leaders drew
stereotypical pictures of women giving priority to their families rather than
organizational work and having no ambitions to gain leadership positions. This can be
interpreted as similar to findings referred to in studies of work organizations: the
stereotype of women as disinterested and uncommitted workers, which prevents
women climbing the career ladder.
The respondents' reasons for the lack of women in leadership positions follow
the organizational logic of apparent gender neutrality. The images of the latter ideal
were considered as gender neutral, but the ideal leader characteristics mentioned were
in accordance with other similar studies shaped by implicit masculinity (e.g., Hovdon
2000). “cker
, for example, has stated that this type of seemingly gender neutral
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leadership represents a barrier in the recruitment of women. With regard to women's
position in sports in Iran, it could be concluded that the female respondents in this
study represent an absolute exception in all aspects.
The reported lack of barriers as well as the considerations linked to the gender
hierarchy of sports organizations should consider the fact that the female sports leaders
who took part in this survey are members of executive sports bodies. It may be
assumed that they have adapted to the structures and cultures of their particular
organization and have internalized, among other things, the planning and management
as well as the dominant ideology. They have fulfilled the demands and succeeded in
making a career in the sports system and thus have positive experiences and feelings
regarding their work. This may contribute to the inter-operation of the organization as
gender neutral and also to the fact that they hardly see barriers and conflicts which
prevent women from following their example. The culture of the organization,
especially the myth of time as an indicator of commitment and success, may contribute
to a situation in which women do not feel motivated to aspire to a voluntary office at a
senior level. The results of the quantitative survey presented provide an insight into the
backgrounds, the attitudes, and the experience of male and female leaders in the Iranian
sports system and contribute to some explanations of the complicated issue of the
gender hierarchy in sports organizations. To develop a deeper understanding of this
issues more qualitative analyses are needed, e.g. analyses which make use of
methodological triangulations and include interviews, discourse analysis, and
observations. However, the perspective of the insiders in this study has many blind
spots and can be supplemented by other and new perspectives, e.g. The perspective of
those women (and men) who cannot enter or do not want to enter a career in sports
organizations. A closer identification of gendering processes which prevent outsiders
from taking on leadership responsibilities in sports organizations would contribute to
both and extend knowledge within this largely unexplored field of research in Iran.
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Mohammad Ehsani, Nahid Shetab Boshehri, Hashem Koozehchian EFFECTIVE FACTORS ON WOMEN'S PROMOTIONAL IN
SPORT MANAGEMENT IN IRAN
Appendix 1
Table 1: Mean, SD, and Percentage of Impact Factors on Female Managers
Variables
Mean
SD
Lowest
Highest
Percentage
%
1. Commitment & Responsibilities
4.45
.40
3.75
5
96
2. Management Skills
4.27
.36
3.67
5
92
3. Interpersonal Communication
4.02
.57
2.75
5
88
4. Psychological Personalities
4.01
.54
2.86
4.71
80
5. Family Support
3.78
.79
2.25
5
68
6. Political Skills
3.60
.55
2.50
4.75
64
7. Technology Knowledge
3.32
.67
1.75
4.50
60
8. Organizational Environment
2.81
.63
1.88
3.88
48
Diagram 1: Hierarchies’ Model of Women Managers' Promotion in Iran
Effective Factors on Women's
Promotional in Sport Management
Prefer using Women's
Characteristics
Commitment
and
Responsibilities
Management
Skills
Psychological
and
Personality
Factors
Family
Support
Communication
Skills
Political
Skills
ICT and
Up to date
Management
Skills
Support of the
Environmental
and Cultural
Organization
1
2
3
5
4
6
7
8
European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science - Volume 2 │ Issue 2 │ 2016
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Mohammad Ehsani, Nahid Shetab Boshehri, Hashem Koozehchian EFFECTIVE FACTORS ON WOMEN'S PROMOTIONAL IN
SPORT MANAGEMENT IN IRAN
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